Raman Spectroscopy Coupled with Reflectance Spectroscopy as a Tool for the Characterization of Key Hydrothermal Alteration Minerals in Epithermal Au–Ag Systems: Utility and Implications for Mineral Exploration

Carlos Arbiol; Graham D. Layne

Applied Spectroscopy
Vol. 75,
Issue 12,
pp. 1475-1496
(2021)

Raman Spectroscopy Coupled with Reflectance Spectroscopy as a Tool for the Characterization of Key Hydrothermal Alteration Minerals in Epithermal Au–Ag Systems: Utility and Implications for Mineral Exploration

Carlos Arbiol and Graham D. Layne

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Carlos Arbiol and Graham D. Layne, "Raman Spectroscopy Coupled with Reflectance Spectroscopy as a Tool for the Characterization of Key Hydrothermal Alteration Minerals in Epithermal Au–Ag Systems: Utility and Implications for Mineral Exploration," Appl. Spectrosc. 75, 1475-1496 (2021)

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Abstract

Raman spectroscopy of fine-grained hydrothermal alteration minerals, and phyllosilicates in particular, presents certain challenges. However, given the increasingly widespread recognition of field portable visible–near infrared–shortwave infrared (Vis-NIR-SWIR) spectroscopy as a valuable tool in the mineral exploration industry, Raman microspectroscopy has promise as an approach for developing detailed complementary information on hydrothermal alteration phases in ore-forming systems. Here we present exemplar high-quality Raman and Vis-NIR-SWIR spectra of four key hydrothermal alteration minerals (pyrophyllite, white mica, chlorite, and alunite) that are common in precious metal epithermal systems, from deposits on the island of Newfoundland, Canada. The results reported here demonstrate that Raman microspectroscopy can accurately characterize pyrophyllite, white mica, chlorite, and alunite and provide details on their compositional variation at the microscale. In particular, spectral differences in the 1000–1150 cm⁻¹ white mica Raman band allows the distinction between low-Tschermak phases (muscovite, paragonite) and phases with higher degrees of Tschermak substitution (phengitic white mica composition). The peak position of the main chlorite Raman band shifts between 683 cm⁻¹ for Mg-rich chlorite and 665 cm⁻¹ for Fe-rich chlorite and can be therefore used for semiquantitative estimation of the Fe²⁺ content in chlorite. Furthermore, while Vis-NIR-SWIR macrospectroscopy allows the rapid identification of the overall composition of the most abundant hydrothermal alteration mineral in a given sample, Raman microspectroscopy provides an in-depth spectral and chemical characterization of individual mineral grains, preserving the spatial and paragenetic context of each mineral and allowing for the distinction of chemical variation between (and within) different mineral grains. This is particularly useful in the case of alunite, white mica, and chlorite, minerals with extensive solid solution, where microscale characterization can provide information on the alteration zonation useful for mineral exploration and provide insight into mineral deposit genesis.

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2021 (1)

C. Arbiol, G.D. Layne, G. Zanoni, B. Segvic. “Characteristics and Genesis of Phyllosilicate Hydrothermal Assemblages from Neoproterozoic Epithermal Au–Ag Mineralization of the Avalon Zone of Newfoundland, Canada”. Appl. Clay Sci. 2021; 202: 105960doi: 10.1016/j.clay.2020.105960.

2020 (1)

S. Zhang, G. Chu, J. Cheng, Y. Zhang, et al. “Short Wavelength Infrared (SWIR) Spectroscopy of Phyllosilicate Minerals from the Tonglushan Cu–Au–Fe Deposit, Eastern China: New Exploration Indicators for Concealed Skarn Orebodies”. Ore Geol. Rev. 2020; 122: 103516doi: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.(2020).103516.

2019 (1)

G. Ferrier, A. Ganas, R. Pope, A.J. Miles. “Prospectivity Mapping for Epithermal Deposits of Western Milos Using a Fuzzy Multi Criteria Evaluation Approach Parameterized by Airborne Hyperspectral Remote Sensing Data”. Geosciences. 2019; 9: 116doi: 10.3390/geosciences9030116.

2018 (5)

G.E. Graham, R.F. Kokaly, K.D. Kelley, T.M. Hoefen, et al. “Application of Imaging Spectroscopy for Mineral Exploration in Alaska: A Study over Porphyry Cu Deposits in the Eastern Alaska Range”. Econ. Geol. 2018; 113(2): 489–510. doi: 10.5382/econgeo.2018.4559.

J. Huang, H. Cheng, J. Han, X. Deng, et al. “Alteration Zonation and Short Wavelength Infrared (SWIR) Characteristics of the Honghai VMS Cu–Zn Deposit, Eastern Tianshan, NW China”. Ore Geol. Rev. 2018; 100: 263–279. doi: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2017.02.037.

N. Gaillard, A.E. Williams-Jones, J.R. Clark, P. Lypaczewski, et al. “Mica Composition as a Vector to Gold Mineralization: Deciphering Hydrothermal and Metamorphic Effects in the Malartic District, Quebec”. Ore Geol. Rev. 2018; 95: 789–820. doi: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2018.02.009.

A. Inoue, S. Inoué, M. Utada. “Application of Chlorite Thermometry to Estimation of Formation Temperature and Redox Conditions”. Clay Miner. 2018; 53(2): 143–158. doi: 10.1180/clm.2018.10.

L.C. Neal, J.J. Wilkinson, P.J. Mason, Z. Chang. “Spectral Characteristics of Propylitic Alteration Minerals as a Vectoring Tool for Porphyry Copper Deposits”. J. Geochem. Explor. 2018; 184(A): 179–198. doi: 10.1016/j.gexplo.2017.10.019.

2017 (1)

R. Wang, T. Cudahy, C. Laukamp, J.L. Walshe, et al. “White Mica as a Hyperspectral Tool in Exploration for the Sunrise Dam and Kanowna Belle Gold Deposits, Western Australia”. Econ. Geol. 2017; 112(5): 1153–1176. doi: 10.5382/econgeo.2017.4505.

2016 (3)

J. Cuadros, J.R. Michalski, V. Dekov, J.L. Bishop. “Octahedral Chemistry of 2:1 Clay Minerals and Hydroxyl Band Position in the Near-Infrared: Application to Mars”. Amer. Mineral. 2016; 101(3): 554–563. doi: 10.2138/am-2016-5366.

B.J. Saikia, G. Parthasarathy, R.R. Borah, R. Borthakur. “Raman and FTIR Spectroscopic Evaluation of Clay Minerals and Estimation of Metal Contaminations in Natural Deposition of Surface Sediments from Brahmaputra River”. Int. J. Geosci. 2016; 7: 873–883. doi: 10.4236/ijg.2016.77064.

M.J. Buschette, S.J. Piercey. “Hydrothermal Alteration and Lithogeochemistry of the Boundary Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposit, Central Newfoundland, Canada”. Can. J. Earth Sci. 2016; 53(5): 1–22. doi: 10.1139/cjes-2015-0237.

2015 (1)

A. Wang, J.J. Freeman, B.L. Jolliff. “Understanding the Raman Spectral Features of Phyllosilicates”. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2015; 46: 829–845. doi: 10.1002/jrs.4680.

2013 (2)

V. Košařová D. Hradil, I. Němec, P. Bezdička, V. Kanickýa. “Microanalysis of Clay-Based Pigments in Painted Artworks by the Means of Raman Spectroscopy”. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2013; 44(11): 1570–1577. doi: 10.1002/jrs.4381.

M.C. Tappert, B. Rivard, D. Giles, R. Tappert, A. Mauger. “The Mineral Chemistry, Near-Infrared, and Mid-Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy of Phengite from the Olympic Dam IOCG Deposit, South Australia”. Ore Geol. Rev. 2013; 53: 26–38. doi: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2012.12.006.

2012 (1)

N. Maubec, A. Lahfid, C. Lerouge, W.K. Michel. “Characterization of Alunite Supergroup Minerals by Raman Spectroscopy”. Spectrochim. Acta, Part A. 2012; 96: 925–939. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2012.07.094.

2011 (1)

M.P. Simpson, J.L. Mauk. “Hydrothermal Alteration and Veins at the Epithermal Au–Ag Deposits and Prospects of the Waitekauri Area, Hauraki Goldfield, New Zealand”. Econ. Geol. 2011; 106(6): 945–973. doi: 10.2113/econgeo.106.6.945.

2010 (2)

R.L. Frost, S. Bahfenne, J. Čejka, J. Sejkora, et al. “Raman and Infrared Study of Phyllosilicates Containing Heavy Metals (Sb, Bi): Bismutoferrite and Chapmanite”. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2010; 41(7): 814–819. doi: 10.1002/jrs.2512.

R.H. Sillitoe. “Porphyry Copper Systems”. Econ. Geol. 2010; 105(1): 3–41. doi: 10.2113/gsecongeo.105.1.3.

2009 (3)

A. Thompson, K. Scott, J. Huntington, K. Yang. “Mapping Mineralogy with Reflectance Spectroscopy: Examples from Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Deposits”. In: R. Bedell, A.P. Crósta, E. Grunsky, editors. Remote Sensing and Spectral Geology. Rev. Econ. Geol. 2009; 16: 1–16. doi: 10.5382/Rev.16.04.

N. Buzgar, A. Buzatu, I.V. Sanislav. “The Raman Study of Certain Sulfates”. Analele Stiintifice de Universitatii A.I. Cuza din Iasi. Sect. 2, Geologie. 2009; 55: 5–23.

J. Carrillo-Rosúa, S. Morales-Ruano, I. Esteban-Arispe, P. Fenoll Hach-Alí. “Significance of Phyllosilicate Mineralogy and Mineral Chemistry in an Epithermal Environment. Insights from the Palai–Islica Au–Cu Deposit (Almería, SE Spain)”. Clays Clay Miner. 2009; 57: 1–24. doi: 10.1346/CCMN.2009.0570101.

2008 (4)

H.E. Frimmel. “Earth's Continental Crustal Gold Endowment” Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2008; 267(1–2): 45–55. doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2007.11.022.

J.L. Bishop, E.Z.N. Dobrea, N.K. McKeown, M. Parente, et al. “Phyllosilicate Diversity and Past Aqueous Activity Revealed at Mawrth Vallis, Mars”. Science. 2008; 321(5890): 830–833. doi: 10.1126/science.1159699.

M. Toumi, A. Tlili. “Rietveld Refinement and Vibrational Spectroscopic Study of Alunite from El Gnater, Central Tunisia”. J. Russ, J. Inorg. Chem. 2008; 53: 1845–1853. doi: 10.1134/S0036023608120048.

S. Zhai, E. Ito, A. Yoneda. “Effects of Pre-Heated Pyrophyllite Gaskets on High-Pressure Generation in the Kawai-Type Multi-Anvil Experiments”. High Press. Res. 2008; 28(3): 265–271. doi: 10.1080/08957950802454050.

2007 (1)

S. Lantenois, J.M. Beny, F. Muller, R. Champallier. “Integration of Fe in Natural and Synthetic Al-Pyrophyllites: An Infrared Spectroscopic Study”. Clay Miner. 2007; 42(1): 129–141. doi: 10.1180/claymin.2007.042.1.09.

2006 (2)

R.L. Frost, R.A. Wills, M.L. Weier, W. Martens, J.T. Kloprogge. “A Raman Spectroscopic Study of Alunites”. J. Mol. Struct. 2006; 785(1–3): 123–132. doi: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2005.10.003.

A. Wang, J.J. Freeman, B.L. Jolliff, I.M. Chou. “Sulfates on Mars: A Systematic Raman Spectroscopic Study of Hydration States of Magnesium Sulfates”. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 2006; 70(24): 6118–6135. doi: 10.1016/j.gca.2006.05.022.

2005 (4)

S. Jones, W. Herrmann, J.B. Gemmell. “Short Wavelength Infrared Spectral Characteristics of the HW Horizon: Implications for Exploration in the Myra Falls Volcanic-Hosted Massive Sulfide Camp, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada”. Econ. Geol. 2005; 100(2): 273–294. doi: 10.2113/gsecongeo.100.2.273.

C.L. Deyell, G.M. Dipple. “Equilibrium Mineral-Fluid Calculations and Their Application to the Solid Solution Between Alunite and Natroalunite in the El Indio-Pascua Belt of Chile and Argentina”. Chem. Geol. 2005; 215(1–4): 219–234. doi: 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2004.06.039.

J.L. Bishop, E. Murad. “The Visible and Infrared Spectral Properties of Jarosite and Alunite”. Am. Mineral. 2005; 90(7): 1100–1107. doi: 10.2138/am.(2005).1700.

S.F. Simmons, N.C. White, D.A. John. “Geological Characteristics of Epithermal Precious and Base Metal Deposits”. Econ. Geol. 2005; 100: 485–522. doi: 10.5382/AV100.16.

2004 (3)

A. Inoue, A. Meunier, D. Beaufort. “Illite–Smectite Mixed-Layer Minerals in Felsic Volcaniclastic Rocks from Drill Cores, Kakkonda, Japan”. Clays Clay Miner. 2004; 52(1): 66–84. doi: 10.1346/CCMN.2004.0520108.

A. Wang, K. Kuebler, B. Jolliff, L.A. Haskin. “Mineralogy of a Martial Meteorite as Determined by Raman Spectroscopy”. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2004; 35(6): 504–514. doi: 10.1002/jrs.1175.

J.L. Bishop, E. Murad. “Characterization of minerals and biogeochemical markers on Mars: A Raman and IR spectroscopic study of montmorillonite”. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2004; 35: 480–486. doi: 10.1002/jrs.1173.

2002 (3)

Ph. Gillet, J.A. Barrat, E. Deloule, M. Wadhwa, et al. “Aqueous Alteration in the Northwest Africa 817 (NWA 817) Martian Meteorite”. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2002; 203(1): 431–444. doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(02)00835-X.

L. Wang, M. Zhang, S.A.T. Redfern, Z. Zhang. “Dehydroxylation and Transformations of the 2:1 Phyllosilicate Pyrophyllite at Elevated Temperatures: An Infrared Spectroscopic Study”. Clays Clay Miner. 2002; 50(2): 272–283. doi: 10.1346/000986002760832874.

J. Etoh, E. Izawa, K. Watanabe, S. Taguchi, R. Sekine. “Bladed Quartz and its Relationship to Gold Mineralization in the Hishikari Low-Sulfidation Epithermal Gold Deposit, Japan”. Econ. Geol. 2002; 97(8): 1841–1851. doi: 10.2113/gsecongeo.97.8.1841.

2001 (5)

W.W. Rudolph, R. Mason. “Study of Aqueous Al2(SO4)3 Solution Under Hydrothermal Conditions: Sulfate Ion Pairing, Hydrolysis, and Formation of Hydronium Alunite”. J. Solution Chem. 2001; 30: 527–548. doi: 10.1023/A:1010334818580.

O. Vidal, T. Parra, F. Trotet. “A Thermodynamic Model for Fe–Mg Aluminous Chlorite Using Data from Phase Equilibrium Experiments and Natural Pelitic Assemblages in the 100° to 600°, 1 to 25 kb range”. Am. J. Sci. 2001; 301(6): 557–592. doi: 10.2475/ajs.301.6.557.

W. Herrmann, M. Blake, M. Doyle, D. Huston, et al. “Short Wavelength Infrared (SWIR) Spectral Analysis of Hydrothermal Alteration Zones Associated with Base Metal Sulfide Deposits at Rosebery and Western Tharsis, Tasmania, and Highway-Reward, Queensland”. Econ. Geol. 2001; 96(5): 939–955. doi: 10.2113/gsecongeo.96.5.939.

D.A. Tillick, D.R. Peacor, J.L. Mauk. “Genesis of Dioctahedral Phyllosilicates during Hydrothermal Alteration of Volcanic Rocks: I. The Golden Cross Epithermal Ore Deposit, New Zealand”. Clays Clay Miner. 2001; 49: 126–140. doi: 10.1346/CCMN.2001.0490203.

Y. Yan, D.A. Tillick, D.R. Peacor, S.F. Simmons. “Genesis of Dioctahedral Phyllosilicates during Hydrothermal Alteration of Volcanic Rocks: II. The Broadlands–Ohaaki Hydrothermal System, New Zealand”. Clays Clay Miner. 2001; 49: 141–155. doi: 10.1346/CCMN.2001.0490204.

2000 (4)

D.R. Cooke, S.F. Simmons. “Characteristics and Genesis of Epithermal Gold Deposits”. Rev. Econ. Geol. 2000; 13(2): 221–244. doi: 10.5382/Rev.13.06.

J.W. Hedenquist, A. Arribas, E. González-Urien. “Exploration for Epithermal Gold Deposits”. Rev. Econ. Geol. 2000; 13: 245–277. doi: 10.5382/Rev.13.07.

R.L. Frost, J.T. Kloprogge. “Raman Spectroscopy of Nontronites”. Appl. Spectrosc. 2000; 54(3): 402–405. doi: 10.1366/0003702001949483.

R.E. Stoffregen, C.N. Alpers, J.L. Jambor. “Alunite–Jarosite Crystallography, Thermodynamics, and Geochronology”. Rev. Mineral. Geochem. 2000; 40(1): 453–479. doi: 10.2138/rmg.2000.40.9.

1999 (2)

J.T. Kloprogge, R.L. Frost. “An Infrared Emission Spectroscopic Study of Synthetic and Natural Pyrophyllite”. Neues Jb. Miner. Abh. 1999; 2: 62–74.

A.J.B. Thompson, P.L. Hauff, A.J. Robitaille. “Alteration Mapping in Exploration: Application of Short-Wave Infrared (SWIR) Spectroscopy”. Soc. Econ. Geol. News. 1999; 39: 15–27.

1998 (1)

V.C. Farmer. “Differing Effects of Particle Size and Shape in the Infrared and Raman Spectra of Kaolinite”. Clay Miner. 1998; 33(4): 601–604. doi: 10.1180/claymin.1998.033.4.07.

1997 (4)

R.L. Frost. “The Structure of the Kaolinite Minerals: A FT–Raman Study”. Clay Miner. 1997; 32(1): 65–77. doi: 10.1180/claymin.1997.032.1.08.

R.L. Frost, H.F. Shurvell. “Raman Microprobe Spectroscopy of Halloysite”. Clays Clay Miner. 1997; 45(1): 68–72. doi: 10.1180/claymin.1997.032.1.08.

R.L. Frost, S.J. Van der Gaast. “Kaolinite Hydroxyls: A Raman Microscopy Study”. Clay Miner. 1997; 32(3): 471–484. doi: 10.1180/claymin.1997.032.3.09.

D.K. Breitinger, R. Kriegelstein, A. Bogner, R.G. Schwab, et al. “Vibrational Spectra of Synthetic Minerals of the Alunite and Crandallite Type”. J. Mol. Struct. 1997; 408–409: 287–290. doi: 10.1016/S0022-2860(96)09627-5.

1996 (2)

S.J. O'Brien, B.H. O'Brien, G.R. Dunning, R.D. Tucker. “Late Neoproterozoic Avalonian and Related Peri-Gondwanan Rocks of the Newfoundland Appalachians”. In: R.D. Nance, M.D. Thompson, editors. Avalonian and Related Peri-Gondwanan Terranes of the Circum-North Atlantic: Boulder, Colorado. Geol. Soc. Am. Special Paper. 1996; 304: 9–28. doi: 10.1130/0-8137-2304-3.9.

R.L. Frost, L. Rintoul. “Lattice Vibrations of Montmorillonite: An FT Raman and X-ray Diffraction Study”. Appl. Clay Sci. 1996; 11(2–4): 171–183. doi: 10.1016/S0169-1317(96)00017-8.

1995 (3)

R.L. Frost. “Fourier Transform Raman Spectroscopy of Kaolinite, Dickite, and Halloysite”. Clays Clay Miner. 1995; 43: 191–195. doi: 10.1346/CCMN.1995.0430206.

G.B. Dubé, G.R. Dunning, K. Lauziere. “Geology of the Hope Brook Mine, Newfoundland, Canada: A Preserved Late Proterozoic High-Sulfidation Epithermal Gold Deposit and its Implications for Exploration”. Econ. Geol. 1995; 93: 405–436. doi: 10.2113/gsecongeo.93.4.405.

N.C. White, J.W. Hedenquist. “Epithermal Gold Deposits: Styles, Characteristics, and Exploration”. SEG Newsletter. 1995; 23(1): 9–13.

1994 (1)

E.F. Duke. “Near Infrared Spectra of Muscovite, Tschermak Substitution, and Metamorphic Reaction Progress: Implications for Remote Sensing”. Geology. 1994; 22(7): 621–624. doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022<0621:NISOMT>2.3.CO;2.

1991 (1)

A.C. Prieto, J. Dubessy, M. Cathelineau. “Structure–Composition Relationships in Trioctahedral Chlorites; a Vibrational Spectroscopy Study”. Clays Clay Miner. 1991; 39: 531–539. doi: 10.1346/CCMN.1991.0390508.

1990 (1)

R.N. Clark, T.V. King, M. Klejwa, G.A. Swayze, N. Vergo. “High Spectral Resolution Reflectance Spectroscopy of Minerals”. J. Geophys. Res. Sol. Earth. 1990; 95(B8): 12653–12680. doi: 10.1029/JB095iB08p12653.

1989 (1)

A. Tlili, D. Smith, J. Beny, H. Boyer. “A Raman Microprobe Study of Natural Micas”. Mineral. Mag. 1989; 53(370): 165–179. doi: 10.1180/minmag.1989.053.370.04.

1985 (1)

B.R. Berger, P.M. Bethke. “Geology and Geochemistry of Epithermal Systems”. Rev. Econ. Geol. 1985; 2: 298doi: 10.5382/Rev.02.

1984 (1)

J.L. Pouchou, F. Pichoir. “A New Model for Quantitative Analyses. I. Application to the Analysis of Homogeneous Samples”. La Recherche Aérospatiale. 1984; 3: 13–38.

1980 (2)

F. Autefage, J.J. Couderc“Étude du Mécanisme de la Migration du Sodium et du Potassium au Cours de leur Analyse a la Microsonde Électronique”. Bull. Miner. 1980; 103: 623–629.

P.E. Rosenberg, G. Cliff. “The Formation of Pyrophyllite Solid Solutions”. Am. Mineral. 1980; 65: 1214–1219.

1979 (1)

H. Williams. “Appalachian Orogen in Canada”. Can. J. Earth Sci. 1979; 16(3): 792–807. doi: 10.1139/e79-070.

1973 (1)

E. Loh. “Optical Vibrations in Sheet Silicates”. J. Phys. C: Solid State Phys. 1973; 6(6): 1091–1104. doi: 10.1088/0022-3719/6/6/022.

1968 (1)

K. Omori. “Infrared Diffraction and the Far Infrared Spectra of Anhydrous Sulfates”. Mineral. J. 1968; 5(5): 334–354. doi: 10.2465/minerj(1953).5.334.

Alpers, C.N.

R.E. Stoffregen, C.N. Alpers, J.L. Jambor. “Alunite–Jarosite Crystallography, Thermodynamics, and Geochronology”. Rev. Mineral. Geochem. 2000; 40(1): 453–479. doi: 10.2138/rmg.2000.40.9.

Arbiol, C.

Arribas, A.

J.W. Hedenquist, A. Arribas, E. González-Urien. “Exploration for Epithermal Gold Deposits”. Rev. Econ. Geol. 2000; 13: 245–277. doi: 10.5382/Rev.13.07.

Autefage, F.

F. Autefage, J.J. Couderc“Étude du Mécanisme de la Migration du Sodium et du Potassium au Cours de leur Analyse a la Microsonde Électronique”. Bull. Miner. 1980; 103: 623–629.

Bahfenne, S.

Barrat, J.A.

Beaufort, D.

Beny, J.

A. Tlili, D. Smith, J. Beny, H. Boyer. “A Raman Microprobe Study of Natural Micas”. Mineral. Mag. 1989; 53(370): 165–179. doi: 10.1180/minmag.1989.053.370.04.

Beny, J.M.

Berger, B.R.

B.R. Berger, P.M. Bethke. “Geology and Geochemistry of Epithermal Systems”. Rev. Econ. Geol. 1985; 2: 298doi: 10.5382/Rev.02.

Bethke, P.M.

B.R. Berger, P.M. Bethke. “Geology and Geochemistry of Epithermal Systems”. Rev. Econ. Geol. 1985; 2: 298doi: 10.5382/Rev.02.

Bezdicka, P.

Bishop, J.L.

J.L. Bishop, E. Murad. “The Visible and Infrared Spectral Properties of Jarosite and Alunite”. Am. Mineral. 2005; 90(7): 1100–1107. doi: 10.2138/am.(2005).1700.

Blake, M.

Bogner, A.

Borah, R.R.

Borthakur, R.

Boyer, H.

A. Tlili, D. Smith, J. Beny, H. Boyer. “A Raman Microprobe Study of Natural Micas”. Mineral. Mag. 1989; 53(370): 165–179. doi: 10.1180/minmag.1989.053.370.04.

Breitinger, D.K.

Buschette, M.J.

Buzatu, A.

N. Buzgar, A. Buzatu, I.V. Sanislav. “The Raman Study of Certain Sulfates”. Analele Stiintifice de Universitatii A.I. Cuza din Iasi. Sect. 2, Geologie. 2009; 55: 5–23.

Buzgar, N.

N. Buzgar, A. Buzatu, I.V. Sanislav. “The Raman Study of Certain Sulfates”. Analele Stiintifice de Universitatii A.I. Cuza din Iasi. Sect. 2, Geologie. 2009; 55: 5–23.

Carrillo-Rosúa, J.

Cathelineau, M.

Cejka, J.

Champallier, R.

Chang, Z.

Cheng, H.

Cheng, J.

Chou, I.M.

Chu, G.

Clark, J.R.

Clark, R.N.

Cliff, G.

P.E. Rosenberg, G. Cliff. “The Formation of Pyrophyllite Solid Solutions”. Am. Mineral. 1980; 65: 1214–1219.

Cooke, D.R.

D.R. Cooke, S.F. Simmons. “Characteristics and Genesis of Epithermal Gold Deposits”. Rev. Econ. Geol. 2000; 13(2): 221–244. doi: 10.5382/Rev.13.06.

Couderc, J.J.

F. Autefage, J.J. Couderc“Étude du Mécanisme de la Migration du Sodium et du Potassium au Cours de leur Analyse a la Microsonde Électronique”. Bull. Miner. 1980; 103: 623–629.

Cuadros, J.

Cudahy, T.

Dekov, V.

Deloule, E.

Deng, X.

Deyell, C.L.

Dipple, G.M.

Dobrea, E.Z.N.

Doyle, M.

Dubé, G.B.

Dubessy, J.

Duke, E.F.

Dunning, G.R.

Esteban-Arispe, I.

Etoh, J.

Farmer, V.C.

V.C. Farmer. “Differing Effects of Particle Size and Shape in the Infrared and Raman Spectra of Kaolinite”. Clay Miner. 1998; 33(4): 601–604. doi: 10.1180/claymin.1998.033.4.07.

Fenoll Hach-Alí, P.

Ferrier, G.

Freeman, J.J.

A. Wang, J.J. Freeman, B.L. Jolliff. “Understanding the Raman Spectral Features of Phyllosilicates”. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2015; 46: 829–845. doi: 10.1002/jrs.4680.

Frimmel, H.E.

H.E. Frimmel. “Earth's Continental Crustal Gold Endowment” Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2008; 267(1–2): 45–55. doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2007.11.022.

Frost, R.L.