Abstract

We present a low-noise distributed acoustic sensor using enhanced backscattering fiber with a series of localized reflectors. The point reflectors were inscribed in a standard telecom fiber in a fully automated system by focusing an ultra-fast laser through the fiber cladding. The inscribed reflectors provided a reflectance of −53 dB, significantly higher than the Rayleigh backscattering level of −70 dB/m, despite adding only 0.01 dB of loss per 100 reflection points. We constructed a coherent φ-OTDR system using a double-pulse architecture to probe the enhanced backscattering fiber. Using this system, we found that the point reflectors enabled an average phase noise of −91 dB (re rad2/Hz), 20 dB lower than sensors formed using Rayleigh backscattering in the same fiber. The sensors are immune to interference fading, exhibit a high degree of linearity, and demonstrate excellent non-local signal suppression (>50 dB). This work illustrates the potential for low-cost enhanced backscattering fiber to enable low-noise, long-range distributed acoustic sensing.

Published by The Optical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI.

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    [Crossref]
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  27. Z. Peng, J. Jian, H. Wen, M. Wang, H. Liu, D. Jiang, Z. Mao, and K. P. Chen, “Fiber-optical distributed acoustic sensing signal enhancements using ultrafast laser and artificial intelligence for human movement detection and pipeline monitoring,” Proc. SPIE 10937, 109370J (2019).
    [Crossref]
  28. A. D. Kersey, K. L. Dorsey, and A. Dandridge, “Cross talk in a fiber-optic Fabry–Perot sensor array with ring reflectors,” Opt. Lett. 14(1), 93–95 (1989).
    [Crossref]
  29. R. Posey, G. A. Johnson, and S. T. Vohra, “Strain sensing based on coherent Rayleigh scattering in an optical fibre,” Electron. Lett. 36(20), 1688–1689 (2000).
    [Crossref]
  30. C. K. Kirkendall and A. Dandridge, “Overview of high performance fibre-optic sensing,” J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 37(18), R197–R216 (2004).
    [Crossref]
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    [Crossref]

2019 (8)

A. Masoudi, J. A. Pilgrim, T. P. Newson, and G. Brambilla, “Subsea Cable Condition Monitoring with Distributed Optical Fiber Vibration Sensor,” J. Lightwave Technol. 37(4), 1352–1358 (2019).
[Crossref]

M. Zabihi, Y. Chen, T. Zhou, J. Liu, Y. Shan, Z. Meng, F. Wang, Y. Zhang, X. Zhang, and M. Chen, “Continuous Fading Suppression Method for Φ-OTDR Systems Using Optimum Tracking Over Multiple Probe Frequencies,” J. Lightwave Technol. 37(14), 3602–3610 (2019).
[Crossref]

L. Costa, H. F. Martins, S. Martin-Lopez, M. R. Fernandez-Ruiz, and M. Gonzalez-Herraez, “Fully Distributed Optical Fiber Strain Sensor With 10 −12 ɛ/√Hz Sensitivity,” J. Lightwave Technol. 37(18), 4487–4495 (2019).
[Crossref]

D. Chen, Q. Liu, Y. Wang, H. Li, and Z. He, “Fiber-optic distributed acoustic sensor based on a chirped pulse and a non-matched filter,” Opt. Express 27(20), 29415–29424 (2019).
[Crossref]

B. Redding, M. J. Murray, A. Davis, and C. K. Kirkendall, “Quantitative amplitude measuring ϕ-OTDR using multiple uncorrelated Rayleigh backscattering realizations,” Opt. Express 27(24), 34952–34960 (2019).
[Crossref]

F. Monet, S. Loranger, V. Lambin-Iezzi, A. Drouin, S. Kadoury, and R. Kashyap, “The ROGUE: a novel, noise-generated random grating,” Opt. Express 27(10), 13895–13909 (2019).
[Crossref]

G. Cedilnik, G. Lees, P. E. Schmidt, S. Herstrom, and T. Geisler, “Pushing the Reach of Fiber Distributed Acoustic Sensing to 125 km Without the Use of Amplification,” IEEE Sens. Lett. 3(3), 1–4 (2019).
[Crossref]

Z. Peng, J. Jian, H. Wen, M. Wang, H. Liu, D. Jiang, Z. Mao, and K. P. Chen, “Fiber-optical distributed acoustic sensing signal enhancements using ultrafast laser and artificial intelligence for human movement detection and pipeline monitoring,” Proc. SPIE 10937, 109370J (2019).
[Crossref]

2018 (3)

M. Wu, X. Fan, Q. Liu, and Z. He, “Highly sensitive quasi-distributed fiber-optic acoustic sensing system by interrogating a weak reflector array,” Opt. Lett. 43(15), 3594–3597 (2018).
[Crossref]

S. Liehr, S. Münzenberger, and K. Krebber, “Wavelength-scanning coherent OTDR for dynamic high strain resolution sensing,” Opt. Express 26(8), 10573–10588 (2018).
[Crossref]

A. H. Hartog, L. B. Liokumovich, N. A. Ushakov, O. I. Kotov, T. Dean, T. Cuny, A. Constantinou, and F. V. Englich, “The use of multi-frequency acquisition to significantly improve the quality of fibre-optic-distributed vibration sensing,” Geophys. Prospect. 66(S1), 192–202 (2018).
[Crossref]

2017 (2)

P. S. Westbrook, T. Kremp, K. S. Feder, W. Ko, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, T. F. Taunay, and R. M. Ortiz, “Continuous multicore optical fiber grating arrays for distributed sensing applications,” J. Lightwave Technol. 35(6), 1248–1252 (2017).
[Crossref]

A. Yan, S. Huang, S. Li, R. Chen, P. Ohodnicki, M. Buric, S. Lee, M. J. Li, and K. P. Chen, “Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors with Ultrafast Laser Enhanced Rayleigh Backscattering Profiles for Real-Time Monitoring of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Operations,” Sci. Rep. 7(1), 9360 (2017).
[Crossref]

2016 (1)

A. Masoudi and T. P. Newson, “Contributed Review: Distributed optical fibre dynamic strain sensing,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 87(1), 011501 (2016).
[Crossref]

2015 (5)

2014 (1)

2013 (1)

2009 (1)

2007 (1)

2005 (1)

2004 (1)

C. K. Kirkendall and A. Dandridge, “Overview of high performance fibre-optic sensing,” J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 37(18), R197–R216 (2004).
[Crossref]

2000 (1)

R. Posey, G. A. Johnson, and S. T. Vohra, “Strain sensing based on coherent Rayleigh scattering in an optical fibre,” Electron. Lett. 36(20), 1688–1689 (2000).
[Crossref]

1992 (1)

H. Izumita, S. Furukawa, Y. Koyamada, and I. Sankawa, “Fading Noise Reduction in Coherent OTDR,” IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 4(2), 201–203 (1992).
[Crossref]

1989 (1)

Bao, X.

Beresna, M.

A. Donko, R. Sandoghchi, A. Masoudi, M. Beresna, and G. Brambilla, “Low-Loss Micro-Machined Fiber With Rayleigh Backscattering Enhanced By Two Orders Of Magnitude,” in OFS Conference Proceedings (OSA, 2018), p. WF75.

Brambilla, G.

A. Masoudi, J. A. Pilgrim, T. P. Newson, and G. Brambilla, “Subsea Cable Condition Monitoring with Distributed Optical Fiber Vibration Sensor,” J. Lightwave Technol. 37(4), 1352–1358 (2019).
[Crossref]

A. Donko, R. Sandoghchi, A. Masoudi, M. Beresna, and G. Brambilla, “Low-Loss Micro-Machined Fiber With Rayleigh Backscattering Enhanced By Two Orders Of Magnitude,” in OFS Conference Proceedings (OSA, 2018), p. WF75.

Buric, M.

A. Yan, S. Huang, S. Li, R. Chen, P. Ohodnicki, M. Buric, S. Lee, M. J. Li, and K. P. Chen, “Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors with Ultrafast Laser Enhanced Rayleigh Backscattering Profiles for Real-Time Monitoring of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Operations,” Sci. Rep. 7(1), 9360 (2017).
[Crossref]

Cai, H.

Cao, R.

J. Wu, Z. Peng, M. Wang, R. Cao, M. J. Li, H. Wen, H. Liu, and K. P. Chen, “Fabrication of Ultra-Weak Fiber Bragg Grating (UWFBG) in Single-Mode Fibers through Ti-Doped Silica Outer Cladding for Distributed Acoustic Sensing,” in Optical Sensors and Sensing Congress (OSA, 2019), p. ETh1A.4.

Cedilnik, G.

G. Cedilnik, G. Lees, P. E. Schmidt, S. Herstrom, and T. Geisler, “Pushing the Reach of Fiber Distributed Acoustic Sensing to 125 km Without the Use of Amplification,” IEEE Sens. Lett. 3(3), 1–4 (2019).
[Crossref]

Chen, D.

Chen, K. P.

Z. Peng, J. Jian, H. Wen, M. Wang, H. Liu, D. Jiang, Z. Mao, and K. P. Chen, “Fiber-optical distributed acoustic sensing signal enhancements using ultrafast laser and artificial intelligence for human movement detection and pipeline monitoring,” Proc. SPIE 10937, 109370J (2019).
[Crossref]

A. Yan, S. Huang, S. Li, R. Chen, P. Ohodnicki, M. Buric, S. Lee, M. J. Li, and K. P. Chen, “Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors with Ultrafast Laser Enhanced Rayleigh Backscattering Profiles for Real-Time Monitoring of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Operations,” Sci. Rep. 7(1), 9360 (2017).
[Crossref]

J. Wu, Z. Peng, M. Wang, R. Cao, M. J. Li, H. Wen, H. Liu, and K. P. Chen, “Fabrication of Ultra-Weak Fiber Bragg Grating (UWFBG) in Single-Mode Fibers through Ti-Doped Silica Outer Cladding for Distributed Acoustic Sensing,” in Optical Sensors and Sensing Congress (OSA, 2019), p. ETh1A.4.

Chen, M.

Chen, R.

A. Yan, S. Huang, S. Li, R. Chen, P. Ohodnicki, M. Buric, S. Lee, M. J. Li, and K. P. Chen, “Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors with Ultrafast Laser Enhanced Rayleigh Backscattering Profiles for Real-Time Monitoring of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Operations,” Sci. Rep. 7(1), 9360 (2017).
[Crossref]

Chen, Y.

Constantinou, A.

A. H. Hartog, L. B. Liokumovich, N. A. Ushakov, O. I. Kotov, T. Dean, T. Cuny, A. Constantinou, and F. V. Englich, “The use of multi-frequency acquisition to significantly improve the quality of fibre-optic-distributed vibration sensing,” Geophys. Prospect. 66(S1), 192–202 (2018).
[Crossref]

Costa, L.

Cuny, T.

A. H. Hartog, L. B. Liokumovich, N. A. Ushakov, O. I. Kotov, T. Dean, T. Cuny, A. Constantinou, and F. V. Englich, “The use of multi-frequency acquisition to significantly improve the quality of fibre-optic-distributed vibration sensing,” Geophys. Prospect. 66(S1), 192–202 (2018).
[Crossref]

Dandridge, A.

C. K. Kirkendall and A. Dandridge, “Overview of high performance fibre-optic sensing,” J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 37(18), R197–R216 (2004).
[Crossref]

A. D. Kersey, K. L. Dorsey, and A. Dandridge, “Cross talk in a fiber-optic Fabry–Perot sensor array with ring reflectors,” Opt. Lett. 14(1), 93–95 (1989).
[Crossref]

Davis, A.

Dean, T.

A. H. Hartog, L. B. Liokumovich, N. A. Ushakov, O. I. Kotov, T. Dean, T. Cuny, A. Constantinou, and F. V. Englich, “The use of multi-frequency acquisition to significantly improve the quality of fibre-optic-distributed vibration sensing,” Geophys. Prospect. 66(S1), 192–202 (2018).
[Crossref]

Donko, A.

A. Donko, R. Sandoghchi, A. Masoudi, M. Beresna, and G. Brambilla, “Low-Loss Micro-Machined Fiber With Rayleigh Backscattering Enhanced By Two Orders Of Magnitude,” in OFS Conference Proceedings (OSA, 2018), p. WF75.

Dorsey, K. L.

Drouin, A.

Englich, F. V.

A. H. Hartog, L. B. Liokumovich, N. A. Ushakov, O. I. Kotov, T. Dean, T. Cuny, A. Constantinou, and F. V. Englich, “The use of multi-frequency acquisition to significantly improve the quality of fibre-optic-distributed vibration sensing,” Geophys. Prospect. 66(S1), 192–202 (2018).
[Crossref]

Fan, X.

Fang, Z.

Feder, K. S.

P. S. Westbrook, T. Kremp, K. S. Feder, W. Ko, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, T. F. Taunay, and R. M. Ortiz, “Continuous multicore optical fiber grating arrays for distributed sensing applications,” J. Lightwave Technol. 35(6), 1248–1252 (2017).
[Crossref]

P. S. Westbrook, K. S. Feder, R. M. Ortiz, T. Kremp, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, and S. Shenk, “Kilometer length low loss enhanced back scattering fiber for distributed sensing,” in 25th International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors (IEEE, 2017), p. 17012426.

Fernandez-Ruiz, M. R.

Furukawa, S.

H. Izumita, S. Furukawa, Y. Koyamada, and I. Sankawa, “Fading Noise Reduction in Coherent OTDR,” IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 4(2), 201–203 (1992).
[Crossref]

Gagné, M.

S. Loranger, M. Gagné, V. Lambin-Iezzi, and R. Kashyap, “Rayleigh scatter based order of magnitude increase in distributed temperature and strain sensing by simple UV exposure of optical fibre,” Sci. Rep. 5(1), 11177 (2015).
[Crossref]

Gao, S.

Geisler, T.

G. Cedilnik, G. Lees, P. E. Schmidt, S. Herstrom, and T. Geisler, “Pushing the Reach of Fiber Distributed Acoustic Sensing to 125 km Without the Use of Amplification,” IEEE Sens. Lett. 3(3), 1–4 (2019).
[Crossref]

Gonzalez-Herraez, M.

Guo, H.

Hartog, A. H.

A. H. Hartog, L. B. Liokumovich, N. A. Ushakov, O. I. Kotov, T. Dean, T. Cuny, A. Constantinou, and F. V. Englich, “The use of multi-frequency acquisition to significantly improve the quality of fibre-optic-distributed vibration sensing,” Geophys. Prospect. 66(S1), 192–202 (2018).
[Crossref]

He, Z.

Herstrom, S.

G. Cedilnik, G. Lees, P. E. Schmidt, S. Herstrom, and T. Geisler, “Pushing the Reach of Fiber Distributed Acoustic Sensing to 125 km Without the Use of Amplification,” IEEE Sens. Lett. 3(3), 1–4 (2019).
[Crossref]

Hogari, K.

Huang, S.

A. Yan, S. Huang, S. Li, R. Chen, P. Ohodnicki, M. Buric, S. Lee, M. J. Li, and K. P. Chen, “Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors with Ultrafast Laser Enhanced Rayleigh Backscattering Profiles for Real-Time Monitoring of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Operations,” Sci. Rep. 7(1), 9360 (2017).
[Crossref]

Imahama, M.

Izumita, H.

H. Izumita, S. Furukawa, Y. Koyamada, and I. Sankawa, “Fading Noise Reduction in Coherent OTDR,” IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 4(2), 201–203 (1992).
[Crossref]

Jia, X.-H.

Jian, J.

Z. Peng, J. Jian, H. Wen, M. Wang, H. Liu, D. Jiang, Z. Mao, and K. P. Chen, “Fiber-optical distributed acoustic sensing signal enhancements using ultrafast laser and artificial intelligence for human movement detection and pipeline monitoring,” Proc. SPIE 10937, 109370J (2019).
[Crossref]

Jiang, D.

Z. Peng, J. Jian, H. Wen, M. Wang, H. Liu, D. Jiang, Z. Mao, and K. P. Chen, “Fiber-optical distributed acoustic sensing signal enhancements using ultrafast laser and artificial intelligence for human movement detection and pipeline monitoring,” Proc. SPIE 10937, 109370J (2019).
[Crossref]

Jiang, D.-S.

Johnson, G. A.

R. Posey, G. A. Johnson, and S. T. Vohra, “Strain sensing based on coherent Rayleigh scattering in an optical fibre,” Electron. Lett. 36(20), 1688–1689 (2000).
[Crossref]

Juarez, J. C.

Kadoury, S.

Kashyap, R.

F. Monet, S. Loranger, V. Lambin-Iezzi, A. Drouin, S. Kadoury, and R. Kashyap, “The ROGUE: a novel, noise-generated random grating,” Opt. Express 27(10), 13895–13909 (2019).
[Crossref]

S. Loranger, M. Gagné, V. Lambin-Iezzi, and R. Kashyap, “Rayleigh scatter based order of magnitude increase in distributed temperature and strain sensing by simple UV exposure of optical fibre,” Sci. Rep. 5(1), 11177 (2015).
[Crossref]

Kersey, A. D.

Kirkendall, C. K.

Ko, W.

Kotov, O. I.

A. H. Hartog, L. B. Liokumovich, N. A. Ushakov, O. I. Kotov, T. Dean, T. Cuny, A. Constantinou, and F. V. Englich, “The use of multi-frequency acquisition to significantly improve the quality of fibre-optic-distributed vibration sensing,” Geophys. Prospect. 66(S1), 192–202 (2018).
[Crossref]

Koyamada, Y.

Krebber, K.

Kremp, T.

P. S. Westbrook, T. Kremp, K. S. Feder, W. Ko, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, T. F. Taunay, and R. M. Ortiz, “Continuous multicore optical fiber grating arrays for distributed sensing applications,” J. Lightwave Technol. 35(6), 1248–1252 (2017).
[Crossref]

P. S. Westbrook, K. S. Feder, R. M. Ortiz, T. Kremp, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, and S. Shenk, “Kilometer length low loss enhanced back scattering fiber for distributed sensing,” in 25th International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors (IEEE, 2017), p. 17012426.

Kubota, K.

Lambin-Iezzi, V.

F. Monet, S. Loranger, V. Lambin-Iezzi, A. Drouin, S. Kadoury, and R. Kashyap, “The ROGUE: a novel, noise-generated random grating,” Opt. Express 27(10), 13895–13909 (2019).
[Crossref]

S. Loranger, M. Gagné, V. Lambin-Iezzi, and R. Kashyap, “Rayleigh scatter based order of magnitude increase in distributed temperature and strain sensing by simple UV exposure of optical fibre,” Sci. Rep. 5(1), 11177 (2015).
[Crossref]

Lee, S.

A. Yan, S. Huang, S. Li, R. Chen, P. Ohodnicki, M. Buric, S. Lee, M. J. Li, and K. P. Chen, “Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors with Ultrafast Laser Enhanced Rayleigh Backscattering Profiles for Real-Time Monitoring of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Operations,” Sci. Rep. 7(1), 9360 (2017).
[Crossref]

Lees, G.

G. Cedilnik, G. Lees, P. E. Schmidt, S. Herstrom, and T. Geisler, “Pushing the Reach of Fiber Distributed Acoustic Sensing to 125 km Without the Use of Amplification,” IEEE Sens. Lett. 3(3), 1–4 (2019).
[Crossref]

Li, H.

Li, M. J.

A. Yan, S. Huang, S. Li, R. Chen, P. Ohodnicki, M. Buric, S. Lee, M. J. Li, and K. P. Chen, “Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors with Ultrafast Laser Enhanced Rayleigh Backscattering Profiles for Real-Time Monitoring of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Operations,” Sci. Rep. 7(1), 9360 (2017).
[Crossref]

J. Wu, Z. Peng, M. Wang, R. Cao, M. J. Li, H. Wen, H. Liu, and K. P. Chen, “Fabrication of Ultra-Weak Fiber Bragg Grating (UWFBG) in Single-Mode Fibers through Ti-Doped Silica Outer Cladding for Distributed Acoustic Sensing,” in Optical Sensors and Sensing Congress (OSA, 2019), p. ETh1A.4.

Li, S.

A. Yan, S. Huang, S. Li, R. Chen, P. Ohodnicki, M. Buric, S. Lee, M. J. Li, and K. P. Chen, “Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors with Ultrafast Laser Enhanced Rayleigh Backscattering Profiles for Real-Time Monitoring of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Operations,” Sci. Rep. 7(1), 9360 (2017).
[Crossref]

Liehr, S.

Liokumovich, L. B.

A. H. Hartog, L. B. Liokumovich, N. A. Ushakov, O. I. Kotov, T. Dean, T. Cuny, A. Constantinou, and F. V. Englich, “The use of multi-frequency acquisition to significantly improve the quality of fibre-optic-distributed vibration sensing,” Geophys. Prospect. 66(S1), 192–202 (2018).
[Crossref]

Liu, F.

Liu, H.

Z. Peng, J. Jian, H. Wen, M. Wang, H. Liu, D. Jiang, Z. Mao, and K. P. Chen, “Fiber-optical distributed acoustic sensing signal enhancements using ultrafast laser and artificial intelligence for human movement detection and pipeline monitoring,” Proc. SPIE 10937, 109370J (2019).
[Crossref]

J. Wu, Z. Peng, M. Wang, R. Cao, M. J. Li, H. Wen, H. Liu, and K. P. Chen, “Fabrication of Ultra-Weak Fiber Bragg Grating (UWFBG) in Single-Mode Fibers through Ti-Doped Silica Outer Cladding for Distributed Acoustic Sensing,” in Optical Sensors and Sensing Congress (OSA, 2019), p. ETh1A.4.

Liu, J.

Liu, Q.

Liu, X.-H.

Loranger, S.

F. Monet, S. Loranger, V. Lambin-Iezzi, A. Drouin, S. Kadoury, and R. Kashyap, “The ROGUE: a novel, noise-generated random grating,” Opt. Express 27(10), 13895–13909 (2019).
[Crossref]

S. Loranger, M. Gagné, V. Lambin-Iezzi, and R. Kashyap, “Rayleigh scatter based order of magnitude increase in distributed temperature and strain sensing by simple UV exposure of optical fibre,” Sci. Rep. 5(1), 11177 (2015).
[Crossref]

Lu, P.

Mao, Z.

Z. Peng, J. Jian, H. Wen, M. Wang, H. Liu, D. Jiang, Z. Mao, and K. P. Chen, “Fiber-optical distributed acoustic sensing signal enhancements using ultrafast laser and artificial intelligence for human movement detection and pipeline monitoring,” Proc. SPIE 10937, 109370J (2019).
[Crossref]

Martin-Lopez, S.

Martins, H. F.

Masoudi, A.

A. Masoudi, J. A. Pilgrim, T. P. Newson, and G. Brambilla, “Subsea Cable Condition Monitoring with Distributed Optical Fiber Vibration Sensor,” J. Lightwave Technol. 37(4), 1352–1358 (2019).
[Crossref]

A. Masoudi and T. P. Newson, “Contributed Review: Distributed optical fibre dynamic strain sensing,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 87(1), 011501 (2016).
[Crossref]

A. Donko, R. Sandoghchi, A. Masoudi, M. Beresna, and G. Brambilla, “Low-Loss Micro-Machined Fiber With Rayleigh Backscattering Enhanced By Two Orders Of Magnitude,” in OFS Conference Proceedings (OSA, 2018), p. WF75.

Meng, Z.

Mihailov, S.

Monberg, E. M.

P. S. Westbrook, T. Kremp, K. S. Feder, W. Ko, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, T. F. Taunay, and R. M. Ortiz, “Continuous multicore optical fiber grating arrays for distributed sensing applications,” J. Lightwave Technol. 35(6), 1248–1252 (2017).
[Crossref]

P. S. Westbrook, K. S. Feder, R. M. Ortiz, T. Kremp, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, and S. Shenk, “Kilometer length low loss enhanced back scattering fiber for distributed sensing,” in 25th International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors (IEEE, 2017), p. 17012426.

Monet, F.

Münzenberger, S.

Murray, M. J.

Newson, T. P.

A. Masoudi, J. A. Pilgrim, T. P. Newson, and G. Brambilla, “Subsea Cable Condition Monitoring with Distributed Optical Fiber Vibration Sensor,” J. Lightwave Technol. 37(4), 1352–1358 (2019).
[Crossref]

A. Masoudi and T. P. Newson, “Contributed Review: Distributed optical fibre dynamic strain sensing,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 87(1), 011501 (2016).
[Crossref]

Ohodnicki, P.

A. Yan, S. Huang, S. Li, R. Chen, P. Ohodnicki, M. Buric, S. Lee, M. J. Li, and K. P. Chen, “Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors with Ultrafast Laser Enhanced Rayleigh Backscattering Profiles for Real-Time Monitoring of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Operations,” Sci. Rep. 7(1), 9360 (2017).
[Crossref]

Ortiz, R. M.

P. S. Westbrook, T. Kremp, K. S. Feder, W. Ko, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, T. F. Taunay, and R. M. Ortiz, “Continuous multicore optical fiber grating arrays for distributed sensing applications,” J. Lightwave Technol. 35(6), 1248–1252 (2017).
[Crossref]

P. S. Westbrook, K. S. Feder, R. M. Ortiz, T. Kremp, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, and S. Shenk, “Kilometer length low loss enhanced back scattering fiber for distributed sensing,” in 25th International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors (IEEE, 2017), p. 17012426.

Pan, Z.

Peng, F.

Peng, G.-D.

Peng, Z.

Z. Peng, J. Jian, H. Wen, M. Wang, H. Liu, D. Jiang, Z. Mao, and K. P. Chen, “Fiber-optical distributed acoustic sensing signal enhancements using ultrafast laser and artificial intelligence for human movement detection and pipeline monitoring,” Proc. SPIE 10937, 109370J (2019).
[Crossref]

J. Wu, Z. Peng, M. Wang, R. Cao, M. J. Li, H. Wen, H. Liu, and K. P. Chen, “Fabrication of Ultra-Weak Fiber Bragg Grating (UWFBG) in Single-Mode Fibers through Ti-Doped Silica Outer Cladding for Distributed Acoustic Sensing,” in Optical Sensors and Sensing Congress (OSA, 2019), p. ETh1A.4.

Peng, Z.-P.

Pilgrim, J. A.

Posey, R.

R. Posey, G. A. Johnson, and S. T. Vohra, “Strain sensing based on coherent Rayleigh scattering in an optical fibre,” Electron. Lett. 36(20), 1688–1689 (2000).
[Crossref]

Qu, R.

Rao, Y.-J.

Redding, B.

Sandoghchi, R.

A. Donko, R. Sandoghchi, A. Masoudi, M. Beresna, and G. Brambilla, “Low-Loss Micro-Machined Fiber With Rayleigh Backscattering Enhanced By Two Orders Of Magnitude,” in OFS Conference Proceedings (OSA, 2018), p. WF75.

Sankawa, I.

H. Izumita, S. Furukawa, Y. Koyamada, and I. Sankawa, “Fading Noise Reduction in Coherent OTDR,” IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 4(2), 201–203 (1992).
[Crossref]

Schmidt, P. E.

G. Cedilnik, G. Lees, P. E. Schmidt, S. Herstrom, and T. Geisler, “Pushing the Reach of Fiber Distributed Acoustic Sensing to 125 km Without the Use of Amplification,” IEEE Sens. Lett. 3(3), 1–4 (2019).
[Crossref]

Shan, Y.

Shang, Y.

Shenk, S.

P. S. Westbrook, K. S. Feder, R. M. Ortiz, T. Kremp, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, and S. Shenk, “Kilometer length low loss enhanced back scattering fiber for distributed sensing,” in 25th International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors (IEEE, 2017), p. 17012426.

Simoff, D. A.

P. S. Westbrook, T. Kremp, K. S. Feder, W. Ko, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, T. F. Taunay, and R. M. Ortiz, “Continuous multicore optical fiber grating arrays for distributed sensing applications,” J. Lightwave Technol. 35(6), 1248–1252 (2017).
[Crossref]

P. S. Westbrook, K. S. Feder, R. M. Ortiz, T. Kremp, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, and S. Shenk, “Kilometer length low loss enhanced back scattering fiber for distributed sensing,” in 25th International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors (IEEE, 2017), p. 17012426.

Taunay, T. F.

Taylor, H. F.

Ushakov, N. A.

A. H. Hartog, L. B. Liokumovich, N. A. Ushakov, O. I. Kotov, T. Dean, T. Cuny, A. Constantinou, and F. V. Englich, “The use of multi-frequency acquisition to significantly improve the quality of fibre-optic-distributed vibration sensing,” Geophys. Prospect. 66(S1), 192–202 (2018).
[Crossref]

Vohra, S. T.

R. Posey, G. A. Johnson, and S. T. Vohra, “Strain sensing based on coherent Rayleigh scattering in an optical fibre,” Electron. Lett. 36(20), 1688–1689 (2000).
[Crossref]

Wang, C.

Wang, F.

Wang, M.

Z. Peng, J. Jian, H. Wen, M. Wang, H. Liu, D. Jiang, Z. Mao, and K. P. Chen, “Fiber-optical distributed acoustic sensing signal enhancements using ultrafast laser and artificial intelligence for human movement detection and pipeline monitoring,” Proc. SPIE 10937, 109370J (2019).
[Crossref]

J. Wu, Z. Peng, M. Wang, R. Cao, M. J. Li, H. Wen, H. Liu, and K. P. Chen, “Fabrication of Ultra-Weak Fiber Bragg Grating (UWFBG) in Single-Mode Fibers through Ti-Doped Silica Outer Cladding for Distributed Acoustic Sensing,” in Optical Sensors and Sensing Congress (OSA, 2019), p. ETh1A.4.

Wang, Y.

Wang, Z.-N.

Wen, H.

Z. Peng, J. Jian, H. Wen, M. Wang, H. Liu, D. Jiang, Z. Mao, and K. P. Chen, “Fiber-optical distributed acoustic sensing signal enhancements using ultrafast laser and artificial intelligence for human movement detection and pipeline monitoring,” Proc. SPIE 10937, 109370J (2019).
[Crossref]

J. Wu, Z. Peng, M. Wang, R. Cao, M. J. Li, H. Wen, H. Liu, and K. P. Chen, “Fabrication of Ultra-Weak Fiber Bragg Grating (UWFBG) in Single-Mode Fibers through Ti-Doped Silica Outer Cladding for Distributed Acoustic Sensing,” in Optical Sensors and Sensing Congress (OSA, 2019), p. ETh1A.4.

Westbrook, P. S.

P. S. Westbrook, T. Kremp, K. S. Feder, W. Ko, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, T. F. Taunay, and R. M. Ortiz, “Continuous multicore optical fiber grating arrays for distributed sensing applications,” J. Lightwave Technol. 35(6), 1248–1252 (2017).
[Crossref]

P. S. Westbrook, K. S. Feder, R. M. Ortiz, T. Kremp, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, and S. Shenk, “Kilometer length low loss enhanced back scattering fiber for distributed sensing,” in 25th International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors (IEEE, 2017), p. 17012426.

Wu, H.

Wu, J.

J. Wu, Z. Peng, M. Wang, R. Cao, M. J. Li, H. Wen, H. Liu, and K. P. Chen, “Fabrication of Ultra-Weak Fiber Bragg Grating (UWFBG) in Single-Mode Fibers through Ti-Doped Silica Outer Cladding for Distributed Acoustic Sensing,” in Optical Sensors and Sensing Congress (OSA, 2019), p. ETh1A.4.

Wu, M.

Wu, X.

Xia, L.

Xiang, D.

Xu, Y.

Yan, A.

A. Yan, S. Huang, S. Li, R. Chen, P. Ohodnicki, M. Buric, S. Lee, M. J. Li, and K. P. Chen, “Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors with Ultrafast Laser Enhanced Rayleigh Backscattering Profiles for Real-Time Monitoring of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Operations,” Sci. Rep. 7(1), 9360 (2017).
[Crossref]

Yang, M.

Ye, Q.

Yu, H.

Yu, H.-H.

Yuan, Y.

Zabihi, M.

Zhang, X.

Zhang, Y.

Zhou, J.

Zhou, T.

Zhu, F.

Appl. Opt. (1)

Electron. Lett. (1)

R. Posey, G. A. Johnson, and S. T. Vohra, “Strain sensing based on coherent Rayleigh scattering in an optical fibre,” Electron. Lett. 36(20), 1688–1689 (2000).
[Crossref]

Geophys. Prospect. (1)

A. H. Hartog, L. B. Liokumovich, N. A. Ushakov, O. I. Kotov, T. Dean, T. Cuny, A. Constantinou, and F. V. Englich, “The use of multi-frequency acquisition to significantly improve the quality of fibre-optic-distributed vibration sensing,” Geophys. Prospect. 66(S1), 192–202 (2018).
[Crossref]

IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. (1)

H. Izumita, S. Furukawa, Y. Koyamada, and I. Sankawa, “Fading Noise Reduction in Coherent OTDR,” IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 4(2), 201–203 (1992).
[Crossref]

IEEE Sens. Lett. (1)

G. Cedilnik, G. Lees, P. E. Schmidt, S. Herstrom, and T. Geisler, “Pushing the Reach of Fiber Distributed Acoustic Sensing to 125 km Without the Use of Amplification,” IEEE Sens. Lett. 3(3), 1–4 (2019).
[Crossref]

J. Lightwave Technol. (7)

P. S. Westbrook, T. Kremp, K. S. Feder, W. Ko, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, T. F. Taunay, and R. M. Ortiz, “Continuous multicore optical fiber grating arrays for distributed sensing applications,” J. Lightwave Technol. 35(6), 1248–1252 (2017).
[Crossref]

J. Zhou, Z. Pan, Q. Ye, H. Cai, R. Qu, and Z. Fang, “Characteristics and Explanations of Interference Fading of a φ-OTDR With a Multi-Frequency Source,” J. Lightwave Technol. 31(17), 2947–2954 (2013).
[Crossref]

M. Zabihi, Y. Chen, T. Zhou, J. Liu, Y. Shan, Z. Meng, F. Wang, Y. Zhang, X. Zhang, and M. Chen, “Continuous Fading Suppression Method for Φ-OTDR Systems Using Optimum Tracking Over Multiple Probe Frequencies,” J. Lightwave Technol. 37(14), 3602–3610 (2019).
[Crossref]

L. Costa, H. F. Martins, S. Martin-Lopez, M. R. Fernandez-Ruiz, and M. Gonzalez-Herraez, “Fully Distributed Optical Fiber Strain Sensor With 10 −12 ɛ/√Hz Sensitivity,” J. Lightwave Technol. 37(18), 4487–4495 (2019).
[Crossref]

A. Masoudi, J. A. Pilgrim, T. P. Newson, and G. Brambilla, “Subsea Cable Condition Monitoring with Distributed Optical Fiber Vibration Sensor,” J. Lightwave Technol. 37(4), 1352–1358 (2019).
[Crossref]

F. Zhu, Y. Zhang, L. Xia, X. Wu, and X. Zhang, “Improved Φ-OTDR sensing system for high-precision dynamic strain measurement based on ultra-weak fiber bragg grating array,” J. Lightwave Technol. 33(23), 4775–4780 (2015).
[Crossref]

Y. Koyamada, M. Imahama, K. Kubota, and K. Hogari, “Fiber-optic distributed strain and temperature sensing with very high measurand resolution over long range using coherent OTDR,” J. Lightwave Technol. 27(9), 1142–1146 (2009).
[Crossref]

J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. (1)

C. K. Kirkendall and A. Dandridge, “Overview of high performance fibre-optic sensing,” J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 37(18), R197–R216 (2004).
[Crossref]

Opt. Express (7)

Opt. Lett. (4)

Proc. SPIE (1)

Z. Peng, J. Jian, H. Wen, M. Wang, H. Liu, D. Jiang, Z. Mao, and K. P. Chen, “Fiber-optical distributed acoustic sensing signal enhancements using ultrafast laser and artificial intelligence for human movement detection and pipeline monitoring,” Proc. SPIE 10937, 109370J (2019).
[Crossref]

Rev. Sci. Instrum. (1)

A. Masoudi and T. P. Newson, “Contributed Review: Distributed optical fibre dynamic strain sensing,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 87(1), 011501 (2016).
[Crossref]

Sci. Rep. (2)

S. Loranger, M. Gagné, V. Lambin-Iezzi, and R. Kashyap, “Rayleigh scatter based order of magnitude increase in distributed temperature and strain sensing by simple UV exposure of optical fibre,” Sci. Rep. 5(1), 11177 (2015).
[Crossref]

A. Yan, S. Huang, S. Li, R. Chen, P. Ohodnicki, M. Buric, S. Lee, M. J. Li, and K. P. Chen, “Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors with Ultrafast Laser Enhanced Rayleigh Backscattering Profiles for Real-Time Monitoring of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Operations,” Sci. Rep. 7(1), 9360 (2017).
[Crossref]

Other (3)

P. S. Westbrook, K. S. Feder, R. M. Ortiz, T. Kremp, E. M. Monberg, H. Wu, D. A. Simoff, and S. Shenk, “Kilometer length low loss enhanced back scattering fiber for distributed sensing,” in 25th International Conference on Optical Fiber Sensors (IEEE, 2017), p. 17012426.

J. Wu, Z. Peng, M. Wang, R. Cao, M. J. Li, H. Wen, H. Liu, and K. P. Chen, “Fabrication of Ultra-Weak Fiber Bragg Grating (UWFBG) in Single-Mode Fibers through Ti-Doped Silica Outer Cladding for Distributed Acoustic Sensing,” in Optical Sensors and Sensing Congress (OSA, 2019), p. ETh1A.4.

A. Donko, R. Sandoghchi, A. Masoudi, M. Beresna, and G. Brambilla, “Low-Loss Micro-Machined Fiber With Rayleigh Backscattering Enhanced By Two Orders Of Magnitude,” in OFS Conference Proceedings (OSA, 2018), p. WF75.

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Figures (5)
Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic of the reel-to-reel, automated, fiber inscription set up. A femtosecond laser was directed onto the fiber through an iris, a dichroic mirror and an objective lens. A 3D printed stage was used to position the fiber under the objective lens and a LED and camera were used to monitor the fiber alignment. A PC and microcontroller were used to manage the process. (b) Schematic of the EBF. A series of localized point reflectors were inscribed in standard single mode fiber. The sensor region is defined by the spacing between the localized reflectors. (c) Reflectance measurement using an EBF with 10 reflectors spaced by 20 m. The localized reflectors had an average reflectance of −53 dB.

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Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. (a) Experimental setup used to interrogate the EBF. A pair of 20 ns pulses with a frequency offset of 25 kHz was injected into the fiber under test. The Rayleigh backscattered light and light from the localized point reflectors was then directed to a polarization diversity receiver using a circulator and the interference between the two pulses was recorded using a high-speed digitizer. After demodulation, the system provides the relative phase between backscattered light from a pair of 2 m reflector regions separated by a 20 m sensing aperture at each position along the fiber. (b) In order to probe the strain induced by the PZT using a sensor formed with point reflectors, we select a location where the reflector regions are centered on neighboring point reflectors and the sensing aperture contains the length of fiber wrapped on the PZT. (c) The same PZT can also be probed by a sensor formed using Rayleigh backscattered light at a position where the reflector regions are offset from the point reflectors.

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Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. (a) Measured phase at each position in the fiber. The PZT was located ∼790 m into the fiber and driven at 2 kHz. (b) Phase noise PSD at each position in the fiber. The PZT modulation at 2 kHz is visible. In addition, the phase noise shows a series of minima corresponding to the positions of the point reflectors. (c) Phase noise PSD at three positions in the fiber, including a sensor formed using point reflectors covering the region of fiber wrapped on the PZT, a sensor formed using Rayleigh backscattering also covering the region of fiber wrapped on the PZT, and a sensor formed using point reflectors after the PZT. The PZT modulation produces the same signal level in the point reflector and Rayleigh based sensor without measurable harmonic distortion. The 2 kHz signal was suppressed by 50 dB in the sensor after the PZT. (d) The PZT-induced phase signal measured as a function of drive voltage using the point reflector sensor.

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Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Average phase noise between 3 and 12 kHz at each position in the fiber is shown in blue on the left-axis. The reflected power is shown in orange on the right axis. The sensors formed using the point reflectors exhibited an average phase noise of −90.9 dB (re rad2/Hz) compared with an average noise of −68.7 (re rad2/Hz) dB in the rest of the fiber.

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Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. (a) Phase and amplitude of a sensor formed using Rayleigh backscattered light covering the PZT region. The laser frequency modulation impacted the backscattered amplitude and the measured phase exhibited discontinuities when the amplitude approached a minima, indicative of interference fading. (b) The phase and amplitude of a sensor formed using point reflectors. The laser frequency modulation had minimal impact on the reflected power and the phase modulation imparted by the PZT was successfully recovered for the entire measurement.

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