Abstract

Scene classification of high-resolution remote sensing images is a fundamental task of earth observation. And numerous methods have been proposed to achieve this. However, these models are inadequate as the number of labelled training data limits them. Most of the existing methods entirely rely on global information, while regions with class-specific ground objects determine the categories of high-resolution remote sensing images. An ensemble model with a cascade attention mechanism, which consists of two kinds of the convolutional neural network, is proposed to address these issues. To improve the generality of the feature extractor, each branch is trained on different large datasets to enrich the prior knowledge. Moreover, to force the model to focus on the most class-specific region in each high-resolution remote sensing image, a cascade attention mechanism is proposed to combine the branches and capture the most discriminative information. By experiments on four benchmark datasets, OPTIMAL-31, UC Merced Land-Use Dataset, Aerial Image Dataset and NWPU-RESISC45, the proposed end-to-end model cascade attention-based double branches model in this paper achieves state-of-the-art performance on each benchmark dataset.

© 2020 Optical Society of America under the terms of the OSA Open Access Publishing Agreement

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2020 (3)

X.-Y. Tong, G.-S. Xia, Q. Lu, H. Shen, S. Li, S. You, and L. Zhang, “Land-cover classification with high-resolution remote sensing images using transferable deep models,” Remote Sens. Environ. 237, 111322 (2020).
[Crossref]

Y. Zhu, R. Li, Y. Yang, and N. Ye, “Learning cascade attention for fine-grained image classification,” Neural Netw. 122, 174–182 (2020).
[Crossref]

H. Sun, S. Li, X. Zheng, and X. Lu, “Remote sensing scene classification by gated bidirectional network,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 58(1), 82–96 (2020).
[Crossref]

2019 (18)

L. Fan, T. Zhang, X. Zhao, H. Wang, and M. Zheng, “Deep topology network: A framework based on feedback adjustment learning rate for image classification,” Adv. Eng. Inform. 42, 100935 (2019).
[Crossref]

S. Saha, F. Bovolo, and L. Bruzzone, “Unsupervised deep change vector analysis for multiple-change detection in vhr images,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(6), 3677–3693 (2019).
[Crossref]

B. Fang, Y. Li, H. Zhang, and J. C.-W. Chan, “Hyperspectral images classification based on dense convolutional networks with spectral-wise attention mechanism,” Remote Sens. 11(2), 159–163 (2019).
[Crossref]

W. Ma, Q. Yang, Y. Wu, W. Zhao, and X. Zhang, “Double-branch multi-attention mechanism network for hyperspectral image classification,” Remote Sens. 11(11), 1307–1328 (2019).
[Crossref]

X. Mei, E. Pan, Y. Ma, X. Dai, J. Huang, F. Fan, Q. Du, H. Zheng, and J. Ma, “Spectral-spatial attention networks for hyperspectral image classification,” Remote Sens. 11(8), 963–981 (2019).
[Crossref]

B. Zhang, Y. Zhang, and S. Wang, “A lightweight and discriminative model for remote sensing scene classification with multidilation pooling module,” IEEE J. Sel. Topics Appl. Earth Observ. Remote Sens. 12(8), 2636–2653 (2019).
[Crossref]

G. Liu, Y. Gousseau, and F. Tupin, “A contrario comparison of local descriptors for change detection in very high spatial resolution satellite images of urban areas,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(6), 3904–3918 (2019).
[Crossref]

J. Song, X. Tong, L. Wang, C. Zhao, and A. V. Prishchepov, “Monitoring finer-scale population density in urban functional zones: A remote sensing data fusion approach,” Landsc. Urban Plan. 190, 103580 (2019).
[Crossref]

J. G. Su, P. Dadvand, M. J. Nieuwenhuijsen, X. Bartoll, and M. Jerrett, “Associations of green space metrics with health and behavior outcomes at different buffer sizes and remote sensing sensor resolutions,” Environ. Int. 126, 162–170 (2019).
[Crossref]

S. Wang, M. Garcia, P. Bauer-Gottwein, J. Jakobsen, P. J. Zarco-Tejada, F. Bandini, V. S. Paz, and A. Ibrom, “High spatial resolution monitoring land surface energy, water and co2 fluxes from an unmanned aerial system,” Remote Sens. of Environ. 229, 14–31 (2019).
[Crossref]

Z. Cao, R. Ma, H. Duan, and K. Xue, “Effects of broad bandwidth on the remote sensing of inland waters: Implications for high spatial resolution satellite data applications,” ISPRS-J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 153, 110–122 (2019).
[Crossref]

T. Tuncer and S. Dogan, “Novel dynamic center based binary and ternary pattern network using m4 pooling for real world voice recognition,” Appl. Acoust. 156, 176–185 (2019).
[Crossref]

Y. Liu, C. Y. Suen, Y. Liu, and L. Ding, “Scene classification using hierarchical wasserstein cnn,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(5), 2494–2509 (2019).
[Crossref]

Y. Yuan, J. Fang, X. Lu, and Y. Feng, “Remote sensing image scene classification using rearranged local features,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(3), 1779–1792 (2019).
[Crossref]

R. Minetto, M. P. Segundo, and S. Sarkar, “Hydra: an ensemble of convolutional neural networks for geospatial land classification,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(9), 6530–6541 (2019).
[Crossref]

J. Xie, N. He, L. Fang, and A. Plaza, “Scale-Free Convolutional Neural Network for Remote Sensing Scene Classification,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(9), 6916–6928 (2019).
[Crossref]

Q. Wang, S. Liu, J. Chanussot, and X. Li, “Scene classification with recurrent attention of VHR remote sensing images,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(2), 1155–1167 (2019).
[Crossref]

Y. Zhang, Y. Yuan, Y. Feng, and X. Lu, “Hierarchical and robust convolutional neural network for very high-resolution remote sensing object detection,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(8), 5535–5548 (2019).
[Crossref]

2018 (12)

X. Lu, W. Zhang, and X. Li, “A hybrid sparsity and distance-based discrimination detector for hyperspectral images,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 56(3), 1704–1717 (2018).
[Crossref]

W. Han, R. Feng, L. Wang, and Y. Cheng, “A semi-supervised generative framework with deep learning features for high-resolution remote sensing image scene classification,” ISPRS-J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 145, 23–43 (2018).
[Crossref]

G. Cheng, C. Yang, X. Yao, L. Guo, and J. Han, “When deep learning meets metric learning: Remote sensing image scene classification via learning discriminative CNNs,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 56(5), 2811–2821 (2018).
[Crossref]

X. Lu, B. Wang, X. Zheng, and X. Li, “Exploring models and data for remote sensing image caption generation,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 56(4), 2183–2195 (2018).
[Crossref]

G. Milani, M. Volpi, D. Tonolla, M. Doering, C. Robinson, M. Kneubühler, and M. Schaepman, “Robust quantification of riverine land cover dynamics by high-resolution remote sensing,” Remote. Sens. Environ. 217, 491–505 (2018).
[Crossref]

Y. Liu and C. Huang, “Scene classification via triplet networks,” IEEE J. Sel. Topics Appl. Earth Observ. Remote Sens. 11(1), 220–237 (2018).
[Crossref]

B. Huang, B. Zhao, and Y. Song, “Urban land-use mapping using a deep convolutional neural network with high spatial resolution multispectral remote sensing imagery,” Remote. Sens. Environ. 214, 73–86 (2018).
[Crossref]

Y. Yu and F. Liu, “Dense connectivity based two-stream deep feature fusion framework for aerial scene classification,” Remote Sens. 10(7), 1158–1172 (2018).
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T. Lin, A. Roy Chowdhury, and S. Maji, “Bilinear convolutional neural networks for fine-grained visual recognition,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 40(6), 1309–1322 (2018).
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N. He, L. Fang, S. Li, A. Plaza, and J. Plaza, “Remote sensing scene classification using multilayer stacked covariance pooling,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 56(12), 6899–6910 (2018).
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R. M. Anwer, F. S. Khan, J. van de Weijer, M. Molinier, and J. Laaksone, “Binary patterns encoded convolutional neural networks for texture recognition and remote sensing scene classification,” ISPRS-J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 138, 74–85 (2018).
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J. Wang, W. Liu, L. Ma, H. Chen, and L. Chen, “Iorn: An effective remote sensing image scene classification framework,” IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 15(11), 1695–1699 (2018).
[Crossref]

2017 (10)

X. Bian, C. Chen, L. Tian, and Q. Du, “Fusing local and global features for high-resolution scene classification,” IEEE J. Sel. Topics Appl. Earth Observ. Remote Sens. 10(6), 2889–2901 (2017).
[Crossref]

D. Bo, X. Wei, W. Jia, Z. Lefei, Z. Liangpei, and T. Dacheng, “Stacked convolutional denoising auto-encoders for feature representation,” IEEE Trans. Cybern. 47(4), 1017–1027 (2017).
[Crossref]

F. Chen, K. Wang, T. Van de Voorde, and T. F. Tang, “Mapping urban land cover from high spatial resolution hyperspectral data: An approach based on simultaneously unmixing similar pixels with jointly sparse spectral mixture analysis,” Remote. Sens. Environ. 196, 324–342 (2017).
[Crossref]

E. Li, J. Xia, P. Du, C. Lin, and A. Samat, “Integrating multilayer features of convolutional neural networks for remote sensing scene classification,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 55(10), 5653–5665 (2017).
[Crossref]

S. Chaib, H. Liu, Y. Gu, and H. Yao, “Deep feature fusion for VHR remote sensing scene classification,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 55(8), 4775–4784 (2017).
[Crossref]

G. Cheng, J. Han, and X. Lu, “Remote sensing image scene classification: Benchmark and state of the art,” Proc. IEEE 105(10), 1865–1883 (2017).
[Crossref]

S. Ren, K. He, R. B. Girshick, and J. Sun, “Faster R-CNN: Towards real-time object detection with region proposal networks,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 39(6), 1137–1149 (2017).
[Crossref]

G.-S. Xia, J. Hu, F. Hu, B. Shi, X. Bai, Y. Zhong, L. Zhang, and X. Lu, “AID: A benchmark data set for performance evaluation of aerial scene classification,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 55(7), 3965–3981 (2017).
[Crossref]

S. Mei, J. Ji, J. Hou, X. Li, and Q. Du, “Learning sensor-specific spatial-spectral features of hyperspectral images via convolutional neural networks,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 55(8), 4520–4533 (2017).
[Crossref]

X. Lu, X. Zheng, and Y. Yuan, “Remote sensing scene classification by unsupervised representation learning,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 55(9), 5148–5157 (2017).
[Crossref]

2016 (4)

G. Cheng, P. Zhou, and J. Han, “Learning rotation-invariant convolutional neural networks for object detection in VHR optical remote sensing images,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 54(12), 7405–7415 (2016).
[Crossref]

Q. Zhu, Y. Zhong, B. Zhao, G.-S. Xia, and L. Zhang, “Bag-of-visual-words scene classifier with local and global features for high spatial resolution remote sensing imagery,” IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 13(6), 747–751 (2016).
[Crossref]

J. Zou, W. Li, C. Chen, and Q. Du, “Scene classification using local and global features with collaborative representation fusion,” Inf. Sci. 348, 209–226 (2016).
[Crossref]

E. Othman, Y. Bazi, N. Alajlan, H. Alhichri, and F. Melgani, “Using convolutional features and a sparse autoencoder for land-use scene classification,” Int. J. Remote Sens. 37(10), 2149–2167 (2016).
[Crossref]

2015 (4)

G. Cheng, P. Zhou, J. Han, L. Guo, and J. Han, “Auto-encoder-based shared mid-level visual dictionary learning for scene classification using very high resolution remote sensing images,” Int. J. Comput. Vis. 9(5), 639–647 (2015).
[Crossref]

Z. Fan, D. Bo, and Z. Liangpei, “Saliency-guided unsupervised feature learning for scene classification,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 53(4), 2175–2184 (2015).
[Crossref]

F. Hu, G.-S. Xia, J. Hu, and L. Zhang, “Transferring deep convolutional neural networks for the scene classification of high-resolution remote sensing imagery,” Remote Sens. 7(11), 14680–14707 (2015).
[Crossref]

G. Cheng, J. Han, L. Guo, Z. Liu, S. Bu, and J. Ren, “Effective and efficient midlevel visual elements-oriented land-use classification using vhr remote sensing images,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 53(8), 4238–4249 (2015).
[Crossref]

2014 (2)

G. Cheng, J. Han, P. Zhou, and L. Guo, “Multi-class geospatial object detection and geographic image classification based on collection of part detectors,” ISPRS-J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 98, 119–132 (2014).
[Crossref]

M. Guo, Y. Zhao, C. Zhang, and Z. Chen, “Fast object detection based on selective visual attention,” Neurocomputing 144, 184–197 (2014).
[Crossref]

2013 (1)

V. Risojević and Z. Babić, “Fusion of global and local descriptors for remote sensing image classification,” IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 10(4), 836–840 (2013).
[Crossref]

2012 (1)

G. Sheng, W. Yang, T. Xu, and H. Sun, “High-resolution satellite scene classification using a sparse coding based multiple feature combination,” Int. J. Remote Sens. 33(8), 2395–2412 (2012).
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2006 (1)

S. Bhagavathy and B. S. Manjunath, “Modeling and detection of geospatial objects using texture motifs,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 44(12), 3706–3715 (2006).
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2004 (1)

D. G. Lowe, “Distinctive image features from scale-invariant keypoints,” Int. J. Comput. Vis. 60(2), 91–110 (2004).
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2002 (1)

M. Corbetta and G. L. Shulman, “Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain,” Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3(3), 201–215 (2002).
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1997 (1)

B. A. Olshausen and D. J. Field, “Sparse coding with an overcomplete basis set: A strategy employed by V1?” Vision Res. 37(23), 3311–3325 (1997).
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1987 (1)

S. Wold, K. Esbensen, and P. Geladi, “Principal component analysis,” Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 2(1-3), 37–52 (1987).
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1979 (1)

J. A. Hartigan and M. A. Wong, “A k-means clustering algorithm,” J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. C-Appl. Stat. 28, 100–108 (1979).

Alajlan, N.

E. Othman, Y. Bazi, N. Alajlan, H. Alhichri, and F. Melgani, “Using convolutional features and a sparse autoencoder for land-use scene classification,” Int. J. Remote Sens. 37(10), 2149–2167 (2016).
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Alhichri, H.

E. Othman, Y. Bazi, N. Alajlan, H. Alhichri, and F. Melgani, “Using convolutional features and a sparse autoencoder for land-use scene classification,” Int. J. Remote Sens. 37(10), 2149–2167 (2016).
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Anguelov, D.

C. Szegedy, W. Liu, Y. Jia, P. Sermanet, S. E. Reed, D. Anguelov, D. Erhan, V. Vanhoucke, and A. Rabinovich, “Going deeper with convolutions,” in Proc. IEEE Conf. Comput. Vis. Pattern Recognit., CVPR 2015, Boston, MA, USA, June, 2015, pp. 1–9.

Anwer, R. M.

R. M. Anwer, F. S. Khan, J. van de Weijer, M. Molinier, and J. Laaksone, “Binary patterns encoded convolutional neural networks for texture recognition and remote sensing scene classification,” ISPRS-J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 138, 74–85 (2018).
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Ba, J.

K. Xu, J. Ba, R. Kiros, K. Cho, A. Courville, R. Salakhudinov, R. Zemel, and Y. Bengio, “Show, attend and tell: Neural image caption generation with visual attention,” in Proc. 27th Int. Conf. Mach. Learn., ICML 2015, Lille, France, July, 2015, pp. 2048–2057.

Babic, Z.

V. Risojević and Z. Babić, “Fusion of global and local descriptors for remote sensing image classification,” IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 10(4), 836–840 (2013).
[Crossref]

Bai, X.

G.-S. Xia, J. Hu, F. Hu, B. Shi, X. Bai, Y. Zhong, L. Zhang, and X. Lu, “AID: A benchmark data set for performance evaluation of aerial scene classification,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 55(7), 3965–3981 (2017).
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Bandini, F.

S. Wang, M. Garcia, P. Bauer-Gottwein, J. Jakobsen, P. J. Zarco-Tejada, F. Bandini, V. S. Paz, and A. Ibrom, “High spatial resolution monitoring land surface energy, water and co2 fluxes from an unmanned aerial system,” Remote Sens. of Environ. 229, 14–31 (2019).
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Bartoll, X.

J. G. Su, P. Dadvand, M. J. Nieuwenhuijsen, X. Bartoll, and M. Jerrett, “Associations of green space metrics with health and behavior outcomes at different buffer sizes and remote sensing sensor resolutions,” Environ. Int. 126, 162–170 (2019).
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Bauer-Gottwein, P.

S. Wang, M. Garcia, P. Bauer-Gottwein, J. Jakobsen, P. J. Zarco-Tejada, F. Bandini, V. S. Paz, and A. Ibrom, “High spatial resolution monitoring land surface energy, water and co2 fluxes from an unmanned aerial system,” Remote Sens. of Environ. 229, 14–31 (2019).
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Bazi, Y.

E. Othman, Y. Bazi, N. Alajlan, H. Alhichri, and F. Melgani, “Using convolutional features and a sparse autoencoder for land-use scene classification,” Int. J. Remote Sens. 37(10), 2149–2167 (2016).
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Bengio, Y.

K. Xu, J. Ba, R. Kiros, K. Cho, A. Courville, R. Salakhudinov, R. Zemel, and Y. Bengio, “Show, attend and tell: Neural image caption generation with visual attention,” in Proc. 27th Int. Conf. Mach. Learn., ICML 2015, Lille, France, July, 2015, pp. 2048–2057.

Bertinetto, L.

Q. Wang, L. Zhang, L. Bertinetto, W. Hu, and P. H. Torr, “Fast online object tracking and segmentation: A unifying approach,” in Proc. IEEE Conf. Comput. Vis. Pattern Recognit., CVPR 2019, Long Beach, CA, USA, June, 2019, pp. 1328–1338.

Bhagavathy, S.

S. Bhagavathy and B. S. Manjunath, “Modeling and detection of geospatial objects using texture motifs,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 44(12), 3706–3715 (2006).
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Bian, X.

X. Bian, C. Chen, L. Tian, and Q. Du, “Fusing local and global features for high-resolution scene classification,” IEEE J. Sel. Topics Appl. Earth Observ. Remote Sens. 10(6), 2889–2901 (2017).
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Bo, D.

D. Bo, X. Wei, W. Jia, Z. Lefei, Z. Liangpei, and T. Dacheng, “Stacked convolutional denoising auto-encoders for feature representation,” IEEE Trans. Cybern. 47(4), 1017–1027 (2017).
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Z. Fan, D. Bo, and Z. Liangpei, “Saliency-guided unsupervised feature learning for scene classification,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 53(4), 2175–2184 (2015).
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S. Saha, F. Bovolo, and L. Bruzzone, “Unsupervised deep change vector analysis for multiple-change detection in vhr images,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(6), 3677–3693 (2019).
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Bruzzone, L.

S. Saha, F. Bovolo, and L. Bruzzone, “Unsupervised deep change vector analysis for multiple-change detection in vhr images,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(6), 3677–3693 (2019).
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Bu, S.

G. Cheng, J. Han, L. Guo, Z. Liu, S. Bu, and J. Ren, “Effective and efficient midlevel visual elements-oriented land-use classification using vhr remote sensing images,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 53(8), 4238–4249 (2015).
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Cao, Z.

Z. Cao, R. Ma, H. Duan, and K. Xue, “Effects of broad bandwidth on the remote sensing of inland waters: Implications for high spatial resolution satellite data applications,” ISPRS-J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 153, 110–122 (2019).
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Chaib, S.

S. Chaib, H. Liu, Y. Gu, and H. Yao, “Deep feature fusion for VHR remote sensing scene classification,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 55(8), 4775–4784 (2017).
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Chan, J. C.-W.

B. Fang, Y. Li, H. Zhang, and J. C.-W. Chan, “Hyperspectral images classification based on dense convolutional networks with spectral-wise attention mechanism,” Remote Sens. 11(2), 159–163 (2019).
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Chanussot, J.

Q. Wang, S. Liu, J. Chanussot, and X. Li, “Scene classification with recurrent attention of VHR remote sensing images,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(2), 1155–1167 (2019).
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Chen, C.

X. Bian, C. Chen, L. Tian, and Q. Du, “Fusing local and global features for high-resolution scene classification,” IEEE J. Sel. Topics Appl. Earth Observ. Remote Sens. 10(6), 2889–2901 (2017).
[Crossref]

J. Zou, W. Li, C. Chen, and Q. Du, “Scene classification using local and global features with collaborative representation fusion,” Inf. Sci. 348, 209–226 (2016).
[Crossref]

Chen, F.

F. Chen, K. Wang, T. Van de Voorde, and T. F. Tang, “Mapping urban land cover from high spatial resolution hyperspectral data: An approach based on simultaneously unmixing similar pixels with jointly sparse spectral mixture analysis,” Remote. Sens. Environ. 196, 324–342 (2017).
[Crossref]

Chen, H.

J. Wang, W. Liu, L. Ma, H. Chen, and L. Chen, “Iorn: An effective remote sensing image scene classification framework,” IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 15(11), 1695–1699 (2018).
[Crossref]

Chen, L.

J. Wang, W. Liu, L. Ma, H. Chen, and L. Chen, “Iorn: An effective remote sensing image scene classification framework,” IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 15(11), 1695–1699 (2018).
[Crossref]

Chen, Z.

M. Guo, Y. Zhao, C. Zhang, and Z. Chen, “Fast object detection based on selective visual attention,” Neurocomputing 144, 184–197 (2014).
[Crossref]

Cheng, G.

G. Cheng, C. Yang, X. Yao, L. Guo, and J. Han, “When deep learning meets metric learning: Remote sensing image scene classification via learning discriminative CNNs,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 56(5), 2811–2821 (2018).
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G. Cheng, J. Han, and X. Lu, “Remote sensing image scene classification: Benchmark and state of the art,” Proc. IEEE 105(10), 1865–1883 (2017).
[Crossref]

G. Cheng, P. Zhou, and J. Han, “Learning rotation-invariant convolutional neural networks for object detection in VHR optical remote sensing images,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 54(12), 7405–7415 (2016).
[Crossref]

G. Cheng, P. Zhou, J. Han, L. Guo, and J. Han, “Auto-encoder-based shared mid-level visual dictionary learning for scene classification using very high resolution remote sensing images,” Int. J. Comput. Vis. 9(5), 639–647 (2015).
[Crossref]

G. Cheng, J. Han, L. Guo, Z. Liu, S. Bu, and J. Ren, “Effective and efficient midlevel visual elements-oriented land-use classification using vhr remote sensing images,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 53(8), 4238–4249 (2015).
[Crossref]

G. Cheng, J. Han, P. Zhou, and L. Guo, “Multi-class geospatial object detection and geographic image classification based on collection of part detectors,” ISPRS-J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 98, 119–132 (2014).
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G. Cheng, J. Han, L. Guo, and T. Liu, “Learning coarse-to-fine sparselets for efficient object detection and scene classification,” in Proc. IEEE Conf. Comput. Vis. Pattern Recognit., CVPR 2015, Boston, MA, USA, June, 2015, pp. 1173–1181.

Cheng, Y.

W. Han, R. Feng, L. Wang, and Y. Cheng, “A semi-supervised generative framework with deep learning features for high-resolution remote sensing image scene classification,” ISPRS-J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 145, 23–43 (2018).
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Cho, K.

K. Xu, J. Ba, R. Kiros, K. Cho, A. Courville, R. Salakhudinov, R. Zemel, and Y. Bengio, “Show, attend and tell: Neural image caption generation with visual attention,” in Proc. 27th Int. Conf. Mach. Learn., ICML 2015, Lille, France, July, 2015, pp. 2048–2057.

Chowdhury, A.

A. Chowdhury and A. Ross, “Fusing mfcc and lpc features using 1d triplet cnn for speaker recognition in severely degraded audio signals,” IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensic Secur. (2019).

Ciresan, D.

J. Masci, U. Meier, D. Cireşan, and J. Schmidhuber, “Stacked convolutional auto-encoders for hierarchical feature extraction,” in Int. Conf. Artif. Neural Netw. ICANN 2011, Espoo, Finland, June, 2011, pp. 52–59.

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M. Corbetta and G. L. Shulman, “Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain,” Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3(3), 201–215 (2002).
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Courville, A.

K. Xu, J. Ba, R. Kiros, K. Cho, A. Courville, R. Salakhudinov, R. Zemel, and Y. Bengio, “Show, attend and tell: Neural image caption generation with visual attention,” in Proc. 27th Int. Conf. Mach. Learn., ICML 2015, Lille, France, July, 2015, pp. 2048–2057.

Dacheng, T.

D. Bo, X. Wei, W. Jia, Z. Lefei, Z. Liangpei, and T. Dacheng, “Stacked convolutional denoising auto-encoders for feature representation,” IEEE Trans. Cybern. 47(4), 1017–1027 (2017).
[Crossref]

Dadvand, P.

J. G. Su, P. Dadvand, M. J. Nieuwenhuijsen, X. Bartoll, and M. Jerrett, “Associations of green space metrics with health and behavior outcomes at different buffer sizes and remote sensing sensor resolutions,” Environ. Int. 126, 162–170 (2019).
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Dai, X.

X. Mei, E. Pan, Y. Ma, X. Dai, J. Huang, F. Fan, Q. Du, H. Zheng, and J. Ma, “Spectral-spatial attention networks for hyperspectral image classification,” Remote Sens. 11(8), 963–981 (2019).
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N. Dalal and B. Triggs, “Histograms of oriented gradients for human detection,” in Proc. IEEE Conf. Comput. Vis. Pattern Recognit., CVPR 2005, San Diego, CA, USA, June, 2005, pp. 886–893.

Deng, J.

J. Deng, W. Dong, R. Socher, L.-J. Li, K. Li, and L. Fei-Fei, “ImageNet: A large-scale hierarchical image database,” in Proc. IEEE Conf. Comput. Vis. Pattern Recognit. CVPR 2009, Miami, Florida, USA, June, 2009, pp. 248–255.

Ding, L.

Y. Liu, C. Y. Suen, Y. Liu, and L. Ding, “Scene classification using hierarchical wasserstein cnn,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(5), 2494–2509 (2019).
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Du, P.

E. Li, J. Xia, P. Du, C. Lin, and A. Samat, “Integrating multilayer features of convolutional neural networks for remote sensing scene classification,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 55(10), 5653–5665 (2017).
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Du, Q.

X. Mei, E. Pan, Y. Ma, X. Dai, J. Huang, F. Fan, Q. Du, H. Zheng, and J. Ma, “Spectral-spatial attention networks for hyperspectral image classification,” Remote Sens. 11(8), 963–981 (2019).
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X. Bian, C. Chen, L. Tian, and Q. Du, “Fusing local and global features for high-resolution scene classification,” IEEE J. Sel. Topics Appl. Earth Observ. Remote Sens. 10(6), 2889–2901 (2017).
[Crossref]

S. Mei, J. Ji, J. Hou, X. Li, and Q. Du, “Learning sensor-specific spatial-spectral features of hyperspectral images via convolutional neural networks,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 55(8), 4520–4533 (2017).
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J. Zou, W. Li, C. Chen, and Q. Du, “Scene classification using local and global features with collaborative representation fusion,” Inf. Sci. 348, 209–226 (2016).
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Duan, H.

Z. Cao, R. Ma, H. Duan, and K. Xue, “Effects of broad bandwidth on the remote sensing of inland waters: Implications for high spatial resolution satellite data applications,” ISPRS-J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 153, 110–122 (2019).
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Erhan, D.

C. Szegedy, W. Liu, Y. Jia, P. Sermanet, S. E. Reed, D. Anguelov, D. Erhan, V. Vanhoucke, and A. Rabinovich, “Going deeper with convolutions,” in Proc. IEEE Conf. Comput. Vis. Pattern Recognit., CVPR 2015, Boston, MA, USA, June, 2015, pp. 1–9.

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S. Wold, K. Esbensen, and P. Geladi, “Principal component analysis,” Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 2(1-3), 37–52 (1987).
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X. Mei, E. Pan, Y. Ma, X. Dai, J. Huang, F. Fan, Q. Du, H. Zheng, and J. Ma, “Spectral-spatial attention networks for hyperspectral image classification,” Remote Sens. 11(8), 963–981 (2019).
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Z. Fan, D. Bo, and Z. Liangpei, “Saliency-guided unsupervised feature learning for scene classification,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 53(4), 2175–2184 (2015).
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Fang, B.

B. Fang, Y. Li, H. Zhang, and J. C.-W. Chan, “Hyperspectral images classification based on dense convolutional networks with spectral-wise attention mechanism,” Remote Sens. 11(2), 159–163 (2019).
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Fang, J.

Y. Yuan, J. Fang, X. Lu, and Y. Feng, “Remote sensing image scene classification using rearranged local features,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(3), 1779–1792 (2019).
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J. Xie, N. He, L. Fang, and A. Plaza, “Scale-Free Convolutional Neural Network for Remote Sensing Scene Classification,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(9), 6916–6928 (2019).
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N. He, L. Fang, S. Li, A. Plaza, and J. Plaza, “Remote sensing scene classification using multilayer stacked covariance pooling,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 56(12), 6899–6910 (2018).
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J. Deng, W. Dong, R. Socher, L.-J. Li, K. Li, and L. Fei-Fei, “ImageNet: A large-scale hierarchical image database,” in Proc. IEEE Conf. Comput. Vis. Pattern Recognit. CVPR 2009, Miami, Florida, USA, June, 2009, pp. 248–255.

Feng, R.

W. Han, R. Feng, L. Wang, and Y. Cheng, “A semi-supervised generative framework with deep learning features for high-resolution remote sensing image scene classification,” ISPRS-J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 145, 23–43 (2018).
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Feng, Y.

Y. Zhang, Y. Yuan, Y. Feng, and X. Lu, “Hierarchical and robust convolutional neural network for very high-resolution remote sensing object detection,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(8), 5535–5548 (2019).
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Y. Yuan, J. Fang, X. Lu, and Y. Feng, “Remote sensing image scene classification using rearranged local features,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 57(3), 1779–1792 (2019).
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Field, D. J.

B. A. Olshausen and D. J. Field, “Sparse coding with an overcomplete basis set: A strategy employed by V1?” Vision Res. 37(23), 3311–3325 (1997).
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J. Fu, H. Zheng, and T. Mei, “Look closer to see better: Recurrent attention convolutional neural network for fine-grained image recognition,” in Proc. IEEE Conf. Comput. Vis. Pattern Recognit., CVPR 2017, Honolulu, HI, USA, July, 2017, pp. 4438–4446.

Garcia, M.

S. Wang, M. Garcia, P. Bauer-Gottwein, J. Jakobsen, P. J. Zarco-Tejada, F. Bandini, V. S. Paz, and A. Ibrom, “High spatial resolution monitoring land surface energy, water and co2 fluxes from an unmanned aerial system,” Remote Sens. of Environ. 229, 14–31 (2019).
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Figures (20)

Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. The large intra-class discrepancy for some categories in NWPU-RESISC45 [14].
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Different situations for HRRS image scene classification.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. The structure of Inception-V3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. The structure of InceptionResNet-V2.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. The detailed structure of Spatial Confusion Attention.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. The mask operation of $M_s$ .
Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. The detailed structure of CAE-CNN.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Testing accuracy tendency during training.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 9. The confusion matrix of CAE-CNN over the OPTIMAL-31 dataset.
Fig. 10.
Fig. 10. Incorrect classification images belonging to church.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 11. Typical samples belonging to commercial area.
Fig. 12.
Fig. 12. Misclassification images belonging to resort.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 13. Typical samples belonging to park.
Fig. 14.
Fig. 14. The confusion matrix of CAE-CNN with 50 $\%$ data for training over the UCM dataset.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 15. The confusion matrix of CAE-CNN with 20 $\%$ data for training over the AID dataset.
Fig. 16.
Fig. 16. The confusion matrix of CAE-CNN with 50 $\%$ data for training over the AID dataset.
Fig. 17.
Fig. 17. The confusion matrix of CAE-CNN with 10 $\%$ data for training over the NWPU-45 dataset.
Fig. 18.
Fig. 18. The confusion matrix of CAE-CNN with 20 $\%$ data for training over the NWPU-45 dataset.
Fig. 19.
Fig. 19. Typical samples belonging to church in the NWPU-45 dataset.
Fig. 20.
Fig. 20. Typical samples belonging to palace in the NWPU-45 dataset.

Tables (6)

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Table 1. THE PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT b h and b l SETTINGS ON THE OPTIMAL-31 DATASET

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Table 2. THE PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF MODELS ON THE OPTIMAL-31 DATASET

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Table 3. PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF MODELS ON UCM LAND-USE DATA SET

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Table 4. THE PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF MODELS ON THE AID DATASET

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Table 5. THE PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF MODELS ON THE NWPU-45 DATASET

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Table 6. THE COMPARISON OF MODEL SIZE AND TIME CONSUMPTION ON THE NWPU-45 DATASET

Equations (28)

Equations on this page are rendered with MathJax. Learn more.

A 1 = f 1 × W c R h × w × C
A 2 = f 2 × W c R h × w × C
M = m a x C ( A 2 ) R h × w
A a v g = m , n w , h A 2 m , n w × h R C
W c = s o f t m a x ( A a v g ) R w × h
M = j = 1 C A 2 × W c R w × h
W s w = s i g m o i d ( W c n 2 ( t a n h ( W c n 1 ( A 2 ) ) ) ) R h × w
M s = s i g m o i d ( W c n 4 ( t a n h ( W c n 3 ( M W s w ) ) ) ) R h × w
f 1 = n , m h , w f 1 n , m M s n , m h , w M s n , m R C
Y 1 = e f 1 j C e f 1 j R C
T = n , m h , w ( M s ) n , m R 1
l o w = m a x ( b l o w × h × w T , 0 )
h i g h = m a x ( T b h i g h × h × w , 0 )
s m = h i g h + l o w h × w
D k l = j C Y f 1 j log ( Y f 1 j Y f 2 j )
c b s = D k l m c n s
r = m a x ( 0 , Y f 1 j Y f 2 j + m r )
s = m a x ( 0 , Y f 1 j Y f 2 j + 2 m s )
s r = m a x ( s , r )
A f = A v g p o o l ( A 1 + A 2 ) R C
Y f i n a l = e A f j C e A f j R C
E 1 = j C Y f 1 j × log ( Y f 1 j )
E 2 = j C Y f 2 j × log ( Y f 2 j )
ω 1 = 1 E 1 1 E 1 + 1 E 2
ω 2 = 1 E 2 1 E 1 + 1 E 2
ω 2 = 1 ω 1
A f i n a l = A v g p o o l ( ω 1 × A 1 + ω 2 × A 2 )
Y f i n a l = e A f j C e A f j R C

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