Abstract

X-ray photons in the wavelength range of about 0.5 - 5 nm are best suited for x-ray microscopy. In the wavelength range λ ⩾ 2.5 nm the absorption cross sections are about one order of magnitude smaller than the cross sections for electrons in the energy range in which electron microscopy is performed. These absorption cross sections for soft x-rays are appropriate for high resolution investigation of biological specimens in their natural state having a thickness of up to about 10 micrometer. Especially interesting is the wavelength range between the K absorption edges of oxygen (λ = 2.34 nm) and carbon (λ = 4.38 nm) because in this wavelength range the radiation is weakly absorbed by water but strongly absorbed by organic matter resulting in a rather good amplitude contrast of wet specimens. For many elements and wavelengths phase shift is the dominating process and not photoelectric absorption. That means that phase-contrast x-ray microscopy can be performed with the following advantages compared to x-ray microscopy modes using amplitude contrast: For wavelengths larger than the carbon k-edge, the amplitude contrast of organic material surrounded by water is very low. To the contrary, for wavelengths slightly larger than CK_α the phase contrast of such an object is high. Even in the wavelength range between the K-edges of carbon and oxygen (water window) wavelengths are found for which imaging in phase contrast is better concerning contrast and dosage compared to amplitude contrast imaging. In addition, imaging with phase contrast can be extended to wavelengths of about 0.5 nm with a dosage comparable to that necessary for imaging with amplitude contrast in the water window. The last point may be of practical importance in future work because with shorter wavelengths thicker specimens can be investigated than up to now.

© 1988 Optical Society of America