Silicon photonics for the visible and near-infrared spectrum

Joyce K. S. Poon; Joyce K. S. Poon; Alperen Govdeli; Alperen Govdeli; Ankita Sharma; Ankita Sharma; Xin Mu; Xin Mu; Fu-Der Chen; Fu-Der Chen; Tianyuan Xue; Tianyuan Xue; Tianyi Liu; Tianyi Liu

doi:10.1364/AOP.501846

Advances in Optics and Photonics
Vol. 16,
Issue 1,
pp. 1-59
(2024)
•https://doi.org/10.1364/AOP.501846

Silicon photonics for the visible and near-infrared spectrum

Joyce K. S. Poon, Alperen Govdeli, Ankita Sharma, Xin Mu, Fu-Der Chen, Tianyuan Xue, and Tianyi Liu

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Joyce K. S. Poon, Alperen Govdeli, Ankita Sharma, Xin Mu, Fu-Der Chen, Tianyuan Xue, and Tianyi Liu, "Silicon photonics for the visible and near-infrared spectrum," Adv. Opt. Photon. 16, 1-59 (2024)

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- Integrated Photonics
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About this Article
History
- Original Manuscript: July 31, 2023
- Revised Manuscript: November 8, 2023
- Manuscript Accepted: November 9, 2023
- Published: January 26, 2024

Abstract

Emerging applications in quantum information, microscopy, biosensing, depth sensing, and augmented reality demand miniaturized components in the visible (VIS) and near-infrared (NIR) spectrum with wavelengths between 380 and 1100 nm. Foundry silicon photonics, which has been optimized for telecommunication wavelengths, can be adapted to this wavelength range. In this article, we review recent developments in silicon photonics for VIS and NIR wavelengths, with a focus on platforms, devices, and photonic circuits fabricated in foundries. Foundries enable the creation of complex circuitry at a wafer scale. Platforms based on silicon nitride and aluminum oxide wave-guides compatible with complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) foundries are becoming available. As a result, highly functional photonic circuits are becoming possible. The key challenges are low-loss waveguides, efficient input/output coupling, sensitive detectors, and heterogeneous integration of lasers and modulators, particularly those using lithium niobate and other electro-optic materials. These elements, already developed for telecommunications, require further development for λ < 1100 nm. As short-wavelength silicon photonics technology advances, photonic integrated circuits can address a broader scope of applications beyond O- and C-band communication.

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Material	$λ$ (nm)	Waveguide Loss (dB/cm)	SM or MM	Foundry	Ref.
SiN (PECVD)	532–900	$\approx 2$ @ 532 nm	SM	imec	[33]
SiN	660	$< 0.5$	SM	-	[34]
SiN	500–1000	$< 3.5$	SM	AIM	[35]
SiN	700–780	0.4 @ 780	SM	Sandia	[36,37]
SiN (PECVD)	450–650	5–2	SM	AMF	[13 ,14 ]
SiN (LPCVD)	405–640	0.3–0.4 @ 405 nm	?	LioniX	[38]
SiN (LPCVD)	405	$< 1$	SM	Tower Semi	[32]
SiN (LPCVD)	450–800	$6.5 \times 10^{- 3}$ @ 674 nm	SM	UCSB	[39,40]
SiN (LPCVD)	450–800	$3 \times 10^{- 3}$ @ 780 nm	SM	UCSB	[39,40]
SiN (LPCVD)	450–850	6.85 @ 450 nm	MM	Ligentec	[40,41]
		4.39 @ 520 nm
		0.98 @ 630 nm
		0.87 @ 750nm
Al $_{2}$ O $_{3}$	371–1092	$\sim 3$ @ 371 nm	MM SM	MIT Lincoln Labs	[15,18]
Al $_{2}$ O $_{3}$	371–1092	$\sim 1$ @ 458 nm	MM SM	MIT Lincoln Labs	[15,18]
Nb $_{2}$ O $_{5}$	532, 633	$\sim 5$ @ 532 nm	SM	imec	[25,26]
Nb $_{2}$ O $_{5}$	532, 633	$\sim 3$ @ 633 nm	SM	imec	[25,26]

Feature	AMF	MIT Lincoln Labs	imec BioPIX	Sandia	LioniX	Tower Semi	Ligentec	AIM	UCSB
References	[13,14, 47 –50]	[18,51,52]	[53]	[36,37]	[54,55]	[32]	[41,42]	[35]	[39,40]
Number of waveguide levels	2	1–3	1	1	1	1	1	2	1
Fiber coupling loss	$< 4$ dB	$< 3$ dB	N.A.	$15$ dB	$< 4$ dB	N.A.	N.A.	N.A.	N.A.
Thermo-optic phase shifter	$✓$	$✓$	$✓$	$\times$	$✓$	$\times$	$✓$	$\times$	$\times$
Photodetectors	$✓$	$✓$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$
MEMS	$✓$	$\times$	$\times$	$✓$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$
Wafer thinning	$✓$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$	$\times$
Lasers	In progress	?	$\times$	$\times$	$✓$	?	?	$\times$	?

Device Type	$A$ (µm $^{2}$ )	$λ$ (nm)	$I_{d a r k}$ (pA)	$R_{P}$ (A/W)	$η_{e}$ ( $%$ )	Bandwidth (GHz)	$M$	GBP (GHz)	Ref.
SiN-on-Si mesa (PIN and PN-APD)	24 $\times$ 50	400–640	144 $\pm$ 42 @ $-$ 5 V^a	TE:0.33 $\pm$ 0.05^b	60–88	8.6 $\pm$ 1.0	46 $\pm$ 14^b	173 $\pm$ 30^b	[47]
SiN-on-Si mesa (PIN and PN-APD)	24 $\times$ 50	400–640	266 $\pm$ 65 @ $-$ 15 V^a	TM:0.30 $\pm$ 0.05^b	@ $-$ 2 V^a	@ $-$ 20 V^a	46 $\pm$ 14^b	173 $\pm$ 30^b	[47]
End-fire SiN-on-SOI (PN-APD^e)	6 $^{e} \times$ 16	685	<70 @ $-$ 2 V	0.65 $\pm$ 0.18 @ $-$ 2 V^g	$\sim$ 40ⁱ	19.1 $\pm$ 8	12.3 $\pm$ 8	234 $\pm$ 25	[84]
End-fire SiN-on-SOI (PN-APD^e)	6 $^{e} \times$ 16	685	<70 @ $-$ 2 V	0.83 $\pm$ 0.05 @ $-$ 20 V^h	$\sim$ 40ⁱ	@ $-$ 20 V^h	@ $-$ 20 V^h	@ $-$ 20 V^h	[84]
End-fire SiN-on-SOI (PN-APD^f)	6 $^{e} \times$ 16	685	<100 @ $-$ 2 V	0.63 @ $-$ 18 V	—	14.8 $\pm$ 2	2.25	33 $\pm$ 1	[84]
End-fire SiN-on-SOI (PN-APD^f)	6 $^{e} \times$ 16	685	<100 @ $-$ 2 V	0.63 @ $-$ 18 V	—	@ $-$ 18 V	@ $-$ 18 V	@ $-$ 18 V	[84]
Al $_{2}$ O $_{3}$ -on-SOI (PIN)	N.A.^j	405	<1000^c	0.24^c	76^d	—	—	—	[52]
Al $_{2}$ O $_{3}$ -on-SOI (PIN)	N.A.^j	405	90.85 µA^d	0.25^d	76^d	—	—	—	[52]

Steering Method	$λ$ (nm)	Steering Range (°)	Resolvable Spots	Power (mW)	Ref.
OPA ( $λ$ tuning)	520–980	65	$\sim$ 260^a	N.A.	[164]
OPA (thermal tuning)	488	50	$\sim$ 294^a	2000	[157]
OPA ( $λ$ $&$ thermal tuning)	650–980	$44 \times 13$	N.A.^c	N.A.	[156]
MEMS L-shaped cantilever	410–700^b	$24 \times 12$	66	46	[48]

Optical Structures	$λ$ (nm)	Target Molecules	Limit ofDetection	Ref.
MZI	633	Listeria	$10^{5}$ CFU^a/ml	[209]
MZI	$\sim$ 600	Fibrinogen	2.14 nM	[210]
BiMW	633	Human growth hormone	10 pg/ml	[199]
BiMW	633	P. aeruginosa	49 CFU/ml	[211]
Microring	652 $\sim$ 660	Lectins	10 pM	[197]
Microring	686 $\sim$ 691	Streptavidin	40 ng/ml	[212]

Abstract

Data Availability

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Figures (20)

Tables (5)

Equations (12)

Advances in Optics and Photonics